UC-NRLF 


RAIL  FAILURES 


FOR 


THE  TRACKMAN 


WITH  NOTES  ON 

RAIL  SPECIFICATIONS, 
RAIL  MANUFACTURE, 

AND 

RAIL    SECTIONS. 


By 
A    L.  DAVIS 


PRICE  —II.  00 
HALL-STOCKTON  PRINTING  CO. 

Wabagh  Ave.  and  26th  St. 
CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1916 
BY  A.  L.  DAVIS. 


PREFACE. 

The  causes  of  Rail  Failures  and  the  remedies 
therefor,  constitute  a  problem  which  requires  the 
most  careful  study  by  every  employe  in  the  Main- 
tenance and  Operating  Departments  of  any  railroad, 
from  the  Section  Foreman  to  the  Chief  Engineer  and 
General  Manager. 

The  elimination  of  Rail  Failures,  in  a  commer- 
cially practical  way,  is  the  subject  of  careful  inves- 
tigation by  the  manufacturers  and  by  the  railroads. 
This  investigation  has  been  carried  on,  for  the  rail- 
roads, by  the  American  Railway  Engineering  Asso- 
ciation, the  details  being  handled  by  its  Committee 
on  Rail. 

The  safety  of  the  traveling  public  and  of  the 
employe  is  involved  in  this  question. 

To  study  it  intelligently  one  must  have  at  least 
an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  process  of  rail  manu- 
facture, and  of  the  specifications  under  which  a  rail 
of  good  quality  can  be  delivered,  as  well  as  a  knowl- 
edge of  what  constitutes  good  practice  in  Main- 
tenance and  Operation. 

It  is  the  aim  of  this  book  to  give  the  Trackman 
sufficient  information  on  Rail  Manufacturing  Prac- 
tice to  enable  him — 

1.  To  properly  classify  each  failure, 

2.  To  report  intelligently  on   any  internal   or   ex- 

ternal defects  disclosed  by  careful  examination 
of  the  fractured  surfaces, 

3.  To  make  proper  entry  of  above  on  his  rail  fail- 

ure   report,    together    with    data    concerning 
track  and  equipment  conditions. 


355556 


It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  all  the  above 
details  be  reported  in  full  as  soon  as  the  failure  is 
discovered;  for  while  the  pieces  of  the  broken  rail 
rail  can  be  examined  in  the  laboratory  and  conclu- 
sions as  to  its  internal  structure  drawn,  any  time 
after  the  failure,  the  other  conditions  which  may 
have  influenced  that  failure  may  change  immedi- 
ately, and  no  reliable  data  concerning  them  other 
than  shown  on  the  Foreman's  report,  can  afterwards 
be  obtained. 

Next  to  a  proper  description  of  the  kind  of  fail- 
ure and  the  conditions  surrounding  same,  it  is  im- 
portant to  see  that  the  Heat  Number,  Kail  Letter, 
and  Ingot  Number  (where  used)  be  correctly  given. 
Where  the  rail  is  rusted  it  should  be  carefully 
cleaned  off  and  the  Foreman  should  satisfy  himself 
that  he  has  obtained  the  correct  information. 

When  the  Foreman's  report  is  fully  and  accurately 
made  out  it  will  be  found  in  the  majority  of  cases 
that  further  examination  of  the  broken  rail  is  un- 
necessary; otherwise,  a  special  representative  of  the 
Engineering  Department  must  make  an  investiga- 
tion of  conditions. 

Too  often  it  is  found  that  the  wrong  heat  num- 
ber has  been  reported,  causing  delay  until  further 
examination  can  be  made,  and  this  could  easily  be 
avoided  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  care  on  the  part 
of  the  Foreman. 

Rail  failures  are  more  numerous  in  the  winter 
months,  and  during  severe  cold  weather  the  Track- 
man should  be  especially  watchful  for  signs  of  fail- 
ures. 

Probably  every  railroad  has  careful  analyses  and 
statistics  made  of  all  rail  breakages  that  have  been 
reported,  but  in  many  cases  sufficient  stress  is  not 
laid  on  the  absolute  necessity  for  obtaining  from  the 
Section  Foreman  a  complete  report  covering  EVERlc 
RAIL  THAT  FAILS  on  his  section. 


It  is  as  essential  to  have  statistics  from  lines  that 
accept  rails  made  under  Manufacturer's  Specifica- 
tions as  from  lines  using  other  specifications,  and 
whose  inspectors  see  that  the  material  furnished 
complies  therewith. 

The  art  of  steel  rail  manufacture  is  not  yet  per- 
fect; no  one  mill  makes  all  good  rails,  and  none 
makes  all  imperfect  rails. 

The  quality  of  rails  has  undoubtedly  improved  in 
recent  years,  due  to 

improvements  in  rail     sections, 
improvements  in  mill  practice, 
more  uniform  chemical  composition,  and 
thorough  inspection. 

Furthermore,  the  number  of  rails  that  fail  an- 
nually compared  to  the  total  number  in  service,  is 
very  small. 

These  improvements  are  due  in  large  part  to  the 
work  of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  Associa- 
tion, backed  by  the  American  Railway  Association. 

One  of  the  most  important  objects  of  compiling 
rail  failure  statistics  is  to  ascertain  which  manu- 
facturers furnish,  consistently  from  year  to  year, 
rails  that  give  good  service. 

Nearly  every  railroad  is  in  a  position  to  make  a 
choice  between  two  or  more  mills  when  placing  rail 
orders,  and  it  is  proper  to  place  them  where  they 
can  get  the  best  material  at  the  general  market 
price. 

Nearly  all  rail  manufacturers  will  replace,  free  of 
charge,  all  defective  rails  found  during  the  first  five 
years  of  service. 

The  Trackman  should  not  feel  that  the  sending 
in  of  a  great  many  rail  failure  reports  is  a  reflec- 
tion on  his  maintenance  methods.  The  Trackman  is 
ranked  among  the  most  faithful  and  industrious 


employes  of  the  railroad,  and  it  may  be  said  that  in 
all  cases  he  does  the  best  he  can  with,  and  gets 
the  best  possible  results  out  of,  the  material  sup- 
plied him.  In  times  of  general  financial  depression 
his  supplies  are,  too  often,  inadequate. 

Nevertheless,  he  must  bear  in  mind  that  he  can 
render  valuable  assistance  to  the  cause  of  Safety 
First  as  applied  to  Rail  Failures,  by  being  con- 
stantly on  the  alert  for  signs  of  impending  failures, 
by  removing  such  rails  from  service  prior  to  total 
failure,  and  by  reporting  promptly  and  fully  on 
every  case. 

By  this  means  only  will  the  Chief  Engineer  be 
enabled  to  determine  the  cause  of  the  failure, 
whether  due  to  defective  rail,  defective  equipment 
or  operation,  or  to  inferior  maintenance,  and  be  in 
a  position  to  apply  the  proper  remedy. 

A.  L.  DAVIS. 

Chicago,  November  7,  1915. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

This  book  is  largely  a  compilation,  modified  and 
supplemented  by  the  writer's  views  and  experience. 

The  following  sources  of  information  were  drawn 
upon: 

Data  on  Rail  Failures  was  obtained  largely  from 
papers,  appearing  in  the  columns  of  the  RAILWAY 
AGE  GAZETTE,  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Gushing,  Dr.  P.  H. 
Dudley,  Capt.  Robt.  W.  Hunt,  Mr.  Robert  Job,  Mr. 
J.  P.  Snow,  Mr.  Bradley  Stoughton  and  Mr.  F.  A. 
Wey  mouth. 

Data  on  Properties  and  Manufacture  of  Iron  and 
Steel  from  the  works  of  Mr.  H.  P.  Tiemann  and 
Mr.  H.  H.  Campbell. 

The  reader  should  guard  against  accepting  the 
data,  in  the  form  given  herein,  as  expressing  the 
exact  views  of  the  individuals  mentioned  above. 

I  am  especially  indebted  to  Mr.  Chas.  W.  Gennet, 
Jr.,  for  many  valuable  suggestions,  as  well  as  for 
the  data  contained  in  Chapters  VIII  and  XXIV. 

A.  L.  DAVIS. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

PART  I.      MANUFACTURE  OF  IRON 

I.     Iron  and  Iron  Ores 13 

II.     Blast  Furnace  and  the  Manufacture 

of  Pig  Iron 15 

PART  II.      MANUFACTURE  OF  RAIL  STEEL 

Introduction   19 

III.  Steel  and  Its  Constituents: 

Article  1 — Useful  Elements;  Iron, 
Carbon,  Manganese  and  Silicon.  22 

Article  2 — Impurities;  Slag,  Sul- 
phur, Phosphorus,  Gases 25 

IV.  Bessemer    Process    of    Making    Rail 

Steel  26 

V.     Open  Hearth  Process  of  Making  Rail 

Steel 28 

VI.  From  Furnace  or  Converter  to  Roll- 
ing Mill;  Blow  or  Heat,  Ladle, 
Teeming,  Ingots,  Stripper,  Soak- 
ing Pits,  Additions 31 

PART  III.      ROLLING  THE  RAIL 

Introduction   37 

VII.     The  Rolling  Mill 39 

VIII.     American   Rail   Mills — Rolling  Prac- 
tice   42 

IX.     Operation  of  Rolling  Mill  at  Gary..  .   44 
X.     Operation    of     Mill     at     Sault     Ste. 

Marie   45 

XI.  From  Rolling  Mill  to  Cars:  Sawing, 
Cambering,  Hot-beds  and  Cooling, 
Cold- Straightening,  Drilling,  Load- 
ing    48 

PART  IV.      CAUSES  OF  RAIL  FAILURES 

Introduction 53 

XII.     Defects  in  Manufacture: 

XIII.  Defects  in  Equipment  and  Operation: 
Introduction 66 

XIV.  Defects  in  Track 70 

10 


CONTENTS      Continued 

Chapter  Page 

PART  V.   KINDS  OF  RAIL  FAILURES 

Introduction 75 

XV.     Head  Failures: 

XVI.     Web  Failures  and  Piped  Rails 80 

XVII.     Base  Failures 81 

XVIII.     Broken  Rails 83 

XIX.     Transverse  Fissures   85 

PART  VI.      SPECIFICATIONS 

Introduction 95 

XX.     A.  R.  E.  A.  Specifications  for   O.  H. 

Rail 97 

XXI.     A.  R.  E.  A.  Specifications   for   Bess. 

Rail    105 

XXII.  Nick-and-break  Test  for  every  Ingot, 
with  ocular  inspection  of  fractured 
surfaces  109 

XXIII.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Finished  Rail. Ill 

XXIV.  Tolerances   . . .113 

PART  VII.      BRANDING  AND  STAMPING 

Introduction    117 

XXV.     American       Rail       Mills — Stamping 

Practice   120 

XXVI.     Blank  Form    for    Recording  Brands 

and  Stamps  124 

PART  VIII.      RAIL   SECTIONS 

Introduction    127 

XXVII.     Sections  Recommended  by  A.  R.  E. 

A.  in  1915 130 

XXVIII.     "A"  Sections  Recommended  by  A.  R. 

A.  in  1908   132 

XXIX.     "B"  Sections  Recommended  by  A.  R. 

A.  in  1908 134 

XXX.     Sections  Recommended  by  A.   S.   C. 

E.  in  1893 136 

XXXI.  Special  Sections  of  Various  Rail- 
roads   140 

XXXII.     Blank  Form  for  Recording  Rail  Di- 
mensions,   Drilling    and     Physical 
Characteristics    144 

11 


PART  I 

MANUFACTURE  OF  IRON 


CHAPTER   I. 

IRON  AND  IRON  ORES 

Iron  and  steel  are  metallic  mixtures,  the  chief  in- 
gredient being  the  element  iron,  of  which  they  con- 
tain from  93  per  cent  to  99  per  cent.  The  difference 
between  iron  and  steel  is  principally  due  to  the  com- 
position and  proportion  of  the  remaining  ingredients. 
Iron  is  rarely  found  in  the  metallic  condition;  but, 
in  combination  with  oxygen,  as  oxide  of  iron,  it 
exists  in  large  quantity.  Iron  ores  contain  from  25 
per  cent  to  70  per  cent  of  iron,  the  balance  being 
oxygen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  silica,  and  other  im- 
purities. 

The  earthy  material  and  impurities,  always  found 
associated  with  any  metallic  ore,  is  called  the 
gangue. 

If  the  ores  contain  less  than  40  per  cent  iron  they 
must  first  be  concentrated,  that  is,  part  of  the 
gangue  removed;  if  less  than  25  per  cent,  the  cost 
of  smelting  is  so  great  that  they  are  not  of  com- 
mercial value. 

Lake  Superior,  Wyoming  and  New  Mexico  ores 
contain  from  55  per  cent  to  60  per  cent,  Cuban  ores 
average  about  55  per  cent,  while  Alabama  ores  aver- 
age only  about  35  per  cent,  iron. 

The  principal  commercial  ore  is  the  anhydrous 
ferric  oxide,  which  varies  in  color  from  a  brilliant 
black  to  a  brick  red,  and  is  ordinarily  known  as 
hematite,  red  hematite,  or  red  iron  ore. 

Other  commercial  ores  are: 

Hydrated  ferric  oxide,  in  color,  from  a  light 
yellow  to  a  dark  brown,  may  be  soft  and  pul- 

13 


Iron  and  Iron  Ores. 

verulent  or  hard  and  compact,  and  known  as 
brown  hematite,  brown  iron  ore,  bog  iron  ore. 

Magnetic  oxide,  a  black,  hard  mineral,  occur- 
ring in  large  masses  or  granulated,  known  as 
magnetic  iron  ore,  black  iron  sand,  etc. 

Carbonate,  occurs  usually  in  granular  masses 
of  a  gray  or  brown  color,  known  as  spathic  iron 
ore,  brown  ore,  etc. 

Iron  ore  is  smelted  (melted  down)  in  a  blast 
furnace,  the  metal  obtained  being  commercially 
known  as  pig  iron.  It  contains  about  93  per  cent 
of  pure  iron,  3  per  cent  to  5  per  cent  of  carbon 
(pure  coal),  some  silicon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  etc. 

From  this  pig  iron  all  steel  is  made. 

Pig  iron  is  also  used  in  foundries  for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  castings,  by  melting  it  in  a  cupola; 
this  does  not  change  its  composition,  but  it  gives 
the  metal  a  closer  grain  and  some  increase  in 
strength. 

Pig  iron  (or  cast  iron)  has  a  grayish-white  lus- 
trous appearance,  does  not  harden  appreciably  on 
quenching,  and  is  brittle  with  little,  if  any,  ductility. 

Pig  iron  and  cast  iron  contain  about  4  per  cent  of 
carbon,  wrought  iron  only  a  trace  of  it,  while  steel 
is  between  these  two  extremes. 


14 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BLAST  FURNACE  AND  THE  MANUFAC- 
TURE OF  PIG  IRON 

The  blast  furnace  is  a  brick  structure,  circular  in 
section,  from  80  to  100  feet  in  height,  and  can  manu- 
facture from  300  to  600  tons  of  pig  iron  per  day. 

It  is  built  of  fire-brick  and  in  two  parts,  the  upper 
part  resting  on  columns,  the  lower  part  resting  di- 
rectly on  the  foundations.  The  upper  portion  is  en- 
cased in  steel  plates,  and  water  circulates  around 
the  lower  portion,  in  pipes,  or  flows  down  the  out- 
side. 

It  is  used  for  smelting  iron  ore  to  obtain  pig  iron, 
and  its  name  arises  from  the  fact  that  a  blast  of 
hot  air  is  blown  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  to 
burn  the  fuel  which  supplies  the  heat,  as  well  as  the 
carbon  necessary  for  the  reduction  (deoxidation) 
and  carburization  of  the  ore,  and  to  make  the  iron 
and  slag  molten. 

The  furnace  is  continuous  in  operation,  the  solid 
raw  materials  being  charged  at  the  top,  and  the 
molten  iron  and  slag  being  tapped  out  at'  the  bot- 
tom at  intervals. 

In  or^\er  to  separate  the  gangue  from  the  iron  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  flux,  that  is,  a  material  that 
will  combine  with  the  gangue  and  produce  a  suitab1^ 
slag  by  (a)  making  it  sufficiently  fusible,  and  (b) 
combining  with  the  impurities  in  the  gangue  and 
thus  preventing  them  from  entering  or  remaining 
in  the  iron. 

The  principal  flux  used  in  blast  furnaces  making 
pig  iron  is  limestone  or  lime. 

The  heat  in  the  furnace  is  derived  from  the  com- 
bustion of  coke. 

The  three  materials,  ore,  limestone  and  coke  form 
what  is  known  as  the  charge,  or  burden. 

15 


Blast  Furnace. 

The  charge  is  put  in  at  the  top  of  the  furnace  at 
nearly  regular  intervals,  and  the  height  of  the  mate- 
rials in  the  furnace  is  maintained  at  a  constant  level 
called  the  stock  line. 

At  a  point  near  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  is  a  hole 
for  tapping  the  molten  iron,  and  a  little  higher  up 
and  to  one  side,  is  a  hole  for  tapping  the  molten 
slag. 

The  slag  is  tapped  out  at  more  frequent  intervals 
than  the  iron,  is  run  directly  into  ladles,  and  car- 
ried away;  it  is  used  for  ballast,  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cement. 

The  iron  is  led  through  sand  troughs  or  runners 
to  the  pig  bed  if  it  is  to  be  sand  cast,  or  into  ladles, 
and  is  carried  away  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  steel,  or  to  be  cast  into  pigs  in  a  pig  machine. 

The  small  amount  of  slag  which  comes  out  of  the 
iron  hole  floats  on  top  of  the  iron,  and  is  diverted 
into  a  side  trough  by  a  skimmer. 

A  modern  plant  requires,  in  addition  to  the  fur- 
nace proper,  blowing  engines  for  furnishing  air  for 
the  blast,  stoves  for  preheating  the  blast,  appliances 
for  charging  the  raw  material,  and  sometimes  a  cast- 
house,  or  pig  machine. 

The  top  of  the  furnace  is  so  constructed  that  the 
charge  can  be  put  in  without  permitting  the  escape 
of  gas  from  the  furnace. 

The  furnace  gas  is  taken  off  at  the  top  of  the  fur- 
nace, the  dust  removed  from  it,  and  after  further 
purification  it  is  used  for  heating  the  stoves,  burning 
under  boilers,  or  as  the  fuel  for  direct  combustion 

engines. 

The  stoves  for  heating  the  blast  are  circular  in 
section,  are  about  as  high  as  the  furnace,  and  consist 
of  a  steel  shell  lined  with  fire-brick  in  such  a  way 

16 


Blast  Furnace. 

as  to  form  a  number  of  flues  or  passages.  The  gas 
is  introduced  and  burned  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
products  of  combustion  go  out  at  the  top.  After  the 
fire-bricks  have  been  heated  to  the  proper  tempera- 
ture the  gas  is  shut  off,  and  the  air  for  the  blast  is 
forced  through  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  large 
blast  furnace  generally  has  four  stoves,  three  of 
which  are  being  heated  while  the  fourth  is  heating 
the  blast. 

As  the  product  of  the  blast  furnace  varies  consid- 
siderably  in  its  composition,  it  is  customary,  before 
using  it  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  to  first  put  it  in 
a  mixer.  The  mixer  is  a  huge  pot-shaped  vessel, 
capable  of  holding  from  250  to  600  tons  of  molten 
pig  iron;  as  a  rule,  the  larger  the  mixer  the  greater 
the  uniformity  obtained,  and  the  easier  is  the  heat 
regained. 

Where  the  hot  iron  from  the  blast  furnace  is  not 
placed  in  mixers,  nor  used  directly  in  the  steel-mak- 
ing furnace,  the  cold  pig  iron  used  for  making  steel 
is  first  melted  in  large  cupolas. 


PART  II 

MANUFACTURE  OF  RAIL  STEEL. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  is  the  process  by  which 
the  proper  proportion  of  carbon  is  obtained  in  the 
iron. 

Steel  used  in  making  rails  is  manufactured  by 
taking  pig  iron  and  burning  the  excess  carbon  out 
of  it. 

Steel  which  owes  its  physical  properties  chiefly 
to  various  percentages  of  carbon,  is  known  as  ordi- 
nary steel  or  carbon  steel. 

All  rail  manufactured  in  this  country  is  made 
by  either  the  straight  Bessemer  or  Open  Hearth 
processes,  or  by  a  combination  of  those  two,  known 
as  Duplex  process. 

In  the  Duplex  process  the  steel  is  started  in  a 
Bessemer  converter  and  finished  in  an  Open  Hearth 
furnace. 

Some  rail  is  being  made  by  what  is  known  as  the 
Triplex  process,  in  which  the  steel  is  started  in  a 
Bessemer  converter  and  passed  serially  through  two 
Open  Hearth  furnaces,  but  this  process  is  not  yet 
well  developed. 

High  grade  steels  are  being  made  in  considerable 
quantity  by  means  of  the  Electric  Furnace,  but 
this  method  is  not  yet  used  for  manufacture  of  rail 
s!;eel,  except  experimentally. 

In  the  Bessemer  process,  as  practiced  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  impossible  to  reduce  the  propor- 
tion of  phosphorus  below  that  existing  in  the  origi- 
nal charge  of  pig  iron;  while  in  the  Open  Hearth 
process,  phosphorus  can  be  left  at  any  desired  pro- 
portion or  almost  entirely  eliminated. 

19 


Manufacture  of  Rail  Steel. 

The  higher  the  phosphorus  content  the  more  brit- 
tle is  the  steel;  as  the  toughness  of  the  steel  is  in- 
creased by  cutting  down  the  proportion  of  phos- 
phorus, and  as  the  supply  of  iron  ores  which  contain 
a  small  amount  of  that  element  is  becoming  ex- 
hausted, the  Open  Hearth  and  Duplex  processes  are 
rapidly  taking  the  place  of  the  straight  Bessemer 
process. 

With  a  low  phosphorus  content  it  is  safe  to  use 
a  higher  proportion  of  carbon.  Hence,  we  get  a  rail 
with  a  higher  elastic  limit,  with  increased  hardness 
and  capacity  for  wear. 

Open  Hearth  rails  are,  however,  subject  to  the 
same  general  defects  which  may  be  found  in  Besse- 
mer rails,  and,  therefore,  require  equal  care  in  proc- 
ess of  manufacture.  However,  the  rail  failure  statis- 
tics of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  Associa- 
tion, show  that  the  rate  of  failure  for  Bessemer 
steel  rails  is  much  higher  than  that  of  Open  Hearth 
steel  rails  of  same  section  and  under  similar  condi- 
tions. Both  show  almost  same  tensile  strength  under 
a  static  load,  but  Bessemer  steel  is  weaker  under  a 
rapidly  applied  stress,  especially  in  cold  weather. 

On  the  other  hand,  Bessemer  rails  w^hen  carefully 
made,  may  give  better  results  in  service  than  Open 
Hearth  rails  in  which  the  same  amount  of  care  in 
manufacture  has  not  been  exercised. 

Some  steel  makers  claim  that  the  Bessemer  pro- 
cess is  cheaper  than  the  Open  Hearth  process,  and  it 
is  still  favored  by  a  few  mills  which  have  large 
bodies  of  low  phosphorus  ores  in  sight. 

Experience  indicates  that  Open  Hearth  steel  rails 
are  more  subject  to  pipe  and  segregatior  than  Besse- 
mer steel  rails — because  of  larger  ingots,  and  be- 
cause the  size  of  the  heat  prevents  slow  casting ;  on 
account  of  low  phosphorus  content  in  the  former  the 


Manufacture  of  Rail  Steel. 

danger  of  segregation  is  lessened,  but  the  higher 
carbon  content  tends  to  increase  segregation  of  that 
element. 

Modern  practice,  in  order  to  produce  more  ton- 
nage, has  been  in  the  direction  of  larger  heats  of 
steel,  larger  ingots,  fewer  passes  through  the  rolls, 
and  more  rapid  reduction  of  cross-section. 

Whereas,  formerly,  thirty  passes  were  required  to 
produce  a  60-lb.  rail,  100-lb.  rails  are  now  produced 
in  fifteen  to  eighteen  passes. 

In  the  past  few  years,  however,  there  has  been  an 
undoubted  improvement  in  quality  at  most  of  the 
mills,  due  to  improved  mill  practice. 

The  steel  manufacturers  are  now  directing  their 
efforts  towards  adopting  such  new  methods  as  may 
be  commercially  practicable,  for  bettering  their  prod- 
uct, and  some  of  the  mills  have  rebuilt  all,  or  por- 
tions, of  their  plants  with  this  end  partly  in  view. 

Some  mills  now  make  furnace  and  ladle  additions 
in  liquid  (instead  of  solid)  form,  thus  insuring  quick 
reaction  and  thorough  mixture. 

One  or  two  mills  are  experimenting  with  the 
sinkhead  process  of  casting  ingots,  thus  keeping 
all  pipe  and  segregation  in  the  upper  part  of  the  in- 
got so  that  it  can  readily  be  removed  in  the  usual 
discard. 

The  use  of  greater  amounts  of  Silicon  and  Alumi- 
num in  the  ladle  and  ingot  molds  is  becoming  gen- 
eral. Bottom  pouring  of  ingots  is  practiced  in  some 
cases.  Some  mills  are  using  a  special  wash  for  the 
inside  surface  of  the  ingot  molds. 

Practically  all  the  mills  are  giving  more  particular 
attention  to  special  control  of  the  heats. 


CHAPTER   III. 

STEEL  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS. 

The  word  Steel  covers  a  multitude  of  mixtures 
which  are  very  different  from  each  other  in  their 
chemical  as  well  as  their  physical  qualities. 

Steel  consists  almost  wholly  of  the  element  Iron, 
with  something  like  2  per  cent  or  more  of  other  ele- 
ments, depending  upon  the  use  for  which  the  steel  is 
designed. 

Of  the  other  elements  some  serve  a  useful  pur- 
pose, while  others  do  not,  the  latter  being  called 
impurities. 

One  of  the  aims  of  good  steel  makers  is  to  elim- 
inate as  much  of  the  impurities  as  is  commercially 
practicable,  and  to  have  the  remaining  constituents 
distributed  evenly  throughout  the  metal  so  as  to 
give  a  uniform  structure. 

The  useful  elements  ordinarily  existing  in  rail 
steel  are  IRON,  CARBON,  MANGANESE,  SILI- 
CON, and  in  addition  frequent  use  is  made  of 
Nickel,  Chromium,  Aluminum,  Titanium  and  Vana- 
dium. 

The    usual    impurities    are    SULPHUR,    PHOS- 
PHORUS,  SLAG  and  GASES. 
Article  1.— USEFUL  ELEMENTS. 

IRON — This  is  a  metal  with  which  everyone  is 
familiar,  and  sufficient  attention  has  already  been 
drawn  to  it  in  previous  chapters. 

CARBON — Next  to  iron,  carbon  is  the  most  im- 
portant element  in  rail  steel. 

Familiar  forms  of  the  element  carbon  are  coal, 
graphite,  soot,  coke,  charcoal. 

The  elastic  limit  and  tensile  strength  of  the  steel 
is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbon  con- 
tent up  to  a  total  proportion  of  1  per  cent  of  the 
mixture,  while  the  ductility  decreases. 

22 


Steel  and  Its  Constituents. 

Soft  boiler  steel  plate  may  contain  but  .06  per 
cent,  steel  rails  from  .40  per  cent  to  .80  per  cent 
(according  to  size),  steel  springs  about  1.00  per 
cent,  and  razor  steel  about  1.25  per  cent  carbon. 

Steel  (or  iron)  which  is  very  low  in  carbon  can 
easily  be  welded  but  it  cannot  be  tempered;  when 
carbon  is  above  .33  per  cent  welding  is  more  difficult. 

Steel  with  carbon  above  .40  per  cent  can  be  tem- 
pered; that  is,  hardened  by  quenching  in  water  (or 
other  liquid)  from  a  red  heat,  and  according  to  the 
proportion  of  carbon,  becomes  very  hard,  and  can 
be  used  for  tools,  such  as  saws,  files,  chisels,  drills, 
cutlery,  etc. 

Other  ingredients,  such  as  Nickel,  Tungsten,  Man- 
ganese, etc.,  are  sometimes  used  to  influence  the 
hardness;  steels  containing  such  elements  are  often 
referred  to  as  Special  Steels. 

MANGANESE— Usually  found  in  combination 
with  oxygen  and  in  conjunction  with  iron.  The  pure 
metal  has  a  grayish-white  color,  with  a  slight  tinge 
of  red,  and  is  hard  and  brittle. 

Next  to  carbon  it  is  the  most  important  constituent 
of  steel.  It  has  a  stronger  affinity  for  oxygen  and 
sulphur  than  has  iron,  and  in  ordinary  amounts  it 
will  remove  oxygen  existing  in  the  steel  either  as  a 
gas  or  in  direct  combination  as  oxide. 

Manganese  is  added  to  steel  for  two  reasons: 

1.  To  unite  with  the  oxygen. 

2.  To  make  the  metal  more  malleable  and  ductile 

when  hot,  so  it  will  roll  more  readily  and  con- 
form better  to  the  desired  shape. 
Its  addition  to  the  metal  is  made  in  the  form  of 
an  alloy  with  iron,  which  when  about  15  per  cent 
manganese   and  85  per  cent  iron  is  called  spiegel 
or  spiegeliesen,  and   when   80   per   cent   manganese 
and  20  per  cent  iron  is  called  ferro-manganese. 

23 


Steel  and  Its  Constituents. 

In  ordinary  steel  the  manganese  varies  from  about 
.50  per  cent  to  1.10  per  cent.  Below  .40  per  cent 
the  removal  of  the  oxygen  does  not  seem  to  be  suffi- 
ciently thorough;  above  1.10  per  cent  and  up  to 
about  6  per  cent  or  7  per  cent  the  hardness  and  the 
brittleness  of  the  steel  increase  so  rapidly  that  the 
material  is  of  little  commercial  value;  while  above 
7  per  cent  and  up  to  10  per  cent  it  becomes  abso- 
lutely worthless.  Above  10  per  cent  and  up  to  about 
15  per  cent  a  curious  reversal  takes  place,  the  metal 
becoming  very  hard  and  tough  after  quenching  in 
water  from  1600  degrees  F.;  this  composition  is 
called  manganese  steel.  Above  this  point  the  metal 
becomes  more  brittle  again. 

Manganese  also  tends  to  neutralize  the  effect  of 
sulphur  and  prevent  red-shortness;  that  is,  tend- 
ency to  crack  while  being  worked  at  a  red  heat. 

SILICON — It  is  always  found  combined  with  oxy- 
gen as  .silica  (sand)  or  a  silicate. 

It  combines  with  iron  to  form  iron-silicide.  It  is 
always  a  constituent  of  pig  iron;  if  higher  than 
about  6  per  cent  it  is  called  ferro-silicon,  in  which 
form  it  is  valuable  as  a  deoxidizer. 

In  ordinary  steel  it  is  usually  under  .30  per  cent; 
in  steel  castings  it  is  generally  under  .25  per  cent; 
while  for  certain  purposes  it  may  go  as  high  as 
1.00  per  cent. 

In  small  proportions  it  hardens  the  steel,  and  also 
tends  to  prevent  unsound  metal.  It  has  a  remark- 
ably strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  and  in  this  particu- 
lar lies  its  usefulness  in  steel.  After  the  manganese 
has  done  its  duty  silicon  is  added  to  remove  the  re- 
maining gases. 

There,  is  good  reason  to  presume  that  the  higher 
the  silicon  in  steel,  within  reasonable  limits,  the  more 
is  the  wearing  quality  of  the  steel  increased. 

24 


Steel  and  Its  Constituents. 
Article  2.— IMPURITIES. 

SLAG — Sometimes  called  cinder,  is  the  molten 
substance,  other  than  the  metal  under  treatment, 
consisting  of  acid  or  basic  oxides  which  may  be 
composed 

(a)  In  Smelting  operations,  of  the  gangue  of 
the   ore   combined   with    some   fluxing   material 
(usually  lime)    added  to  render  it  fusible  and 
easily  separated  from  the  metal,  or 

(b)  In    purifying    processes,    of    substances 
(usually  lime  and  iron  oxides)    introduced  for 
the  purpose  of  affecting  or  assisting  in  the  puri- 
fication. 

As  a  result  of  the  methods  by  which  steel  is  manu- 
factured, it  is  obvious  that  the  liquid  metal  coming 
from  the  furnace  is  permeated  with  particles  of  slag 
which,  because  of  being  lighter  than  the  mother 
liquid,  rapidly  seek  the  top  in  an  effort  to  escape; 
notwithstanding,  unless  great  precautions  are  taken, 
particles  of  Iron,  Manganese  and  Silicon  oxides  are 
often  found  in  the  finished  steel. 

PHOSPHORUS — It  is  the  most  undesirable  im- 
purity which  occurs  in  steel.  It  is  usually  limited 
to  .10  per  cent  in  Bessemer  and  to  .04  per  cent  in 
Open  Hearth  steel. 

It  has  a  greater  hardening  effect  than  either  car- 
bon or  silicon,  and  reduces  the  power  of  the  steel 
to  resist  impact. 

It  makes  steel  cold-short;  that  is,  brittle  at  at- 
mospheric temperatures. 

An  amount  of  phosphorus,  so  small,  that  with 
proper  proportion  to  carbon,  both  toughness  and 
hardness  are  insured,  is  not  objectionable. 

SULPHUR — It  is  found  both  free  and  combined. 
It  combines  with  oxygen  and  manganese  to  form 


Steel  and  Its  Constituents. 

oxides  and  sulphides,  which  are  almost  entirely,  if 
not  quite,  insoluble  in  steel,  thus  breaking  up  the 
continuity  of  the  structure. 

When  present  in  steel  in  undesirable  amounts  it 
makes  the  metal  red-short;  that  is,  to  crack  while 
being  worked  at  rolling  temperatures;  this  produces, 
in  the  case  of  rails,  a  large  number  of  second  qual- 
ity and  scrap  rails. 

OXYGEN — A  gas  which  forms  one-fifth  (by  vol- 
ume) of  the  air.  Combined  with  iron  it  forms  iron- 
oxide.  Familiar  forms  of  iron-oxide  are  iron  ore, 
rust,  and  the  scale  which  forms  on  an  iron  or  steel 
bar  in  cooling  after  removal  from  a  furnace  or  forge. 

Many  deleterious  effects  are  laid  to  the  presence 
of  oxygen  in  steel,  and  steel  containing  over  a  cer- 
tain per  cent  of  oxygen  is  usually  considered  unde- 
sirable. 

NITROGEN — A  gas  which  forms  four-fifths  of 
air.  It  is  often  found  in  steel,  and  its  ill  effects  are 
the  subject  of  careful  investigation. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

BESSEMER  PROCESS  OF  MAKING  RAIL 
STEEL. 

This  process  consists  of  blowing  air  through  mol- 
ten iron  contained  in  a  suitable  vessel,  whereby  the 
carbon,  manganese  and  silicon  are  oxidized  and  re- 
moved in  the  form  of  slag,  and  the  product  is  ob- 
tained in  a  fluid  condition. 

The  impurities  go  into  the  slag  if  solid,  or  out  of 
the  mouth  of  the  vessel  if  gaseous. 

The  molten  metal  still  contains  a  certain  amount 
of  oxides  and  gases,  which  are  removed  by  adding 
manganese,  in  the  form  of  spiegel,  and  in  such  pro- 
portion as  to  give  the  steel  the  proper  percentage  of 
carbon. 

26 


Bessemer  Process., 

The  molten  pig  iron  from  the  blast  furnace,  mixer, 
or  cupola,  is  put  into  a  large  pear-shaped  vessel 
called  the  converter,  the  bottom  of  which  is  double, 
the  inner  one  being  perforated  with  numerous  holes 
to  admit  air  to  be  forced  in  under  pressure. 

The  converter  consists  of  a  steel  shell  lined  with 
suitable  fire-brick,  and  mounted  at  the  middle  on 
trunnions  so  it  can  be  tilted  to  various  angles. 

The  molten  iron,  from  5  to  15  tons  at  a  time,  is 
poured  into  the  converter  while  the  latter  is  lying 
on  its  side,  then  the  air  is  turned  into  the  double 
bottom  as  the  converter  rises  to  a  vertical  position. 

The  air  has  sufficient  pressure  to  prevent  the  mol- 
ten metal  from  entering  the  holes  in  the  bottom,  and 
it  streams  up  through  the  molten  iron,  burning  out 
the  carbon,  silicon,  and  manganese,  accompanied  by 
a  brilliant  display  of  sparks  and  a  flame  shooting 
out  of  the  mouth  of  the  converter.  Fifteen  tons  of 
molten  pig  iron  contain  nearly  three-quarters  of  a 
ton  of  carbon,  and  since  this  is  all  burned  out  in  less 
than  fifteen  minutes,  the  rapid  rate  of  combustion 
increases  the  heat  of  the  metal  very  much;  the  air 
blast  does  not  cool  it,  as  one  might  suppose,  and 
scrap  has  to  be  added,  or  steam,  in  order  to  keep  the 
temperature  within  proper  limits. 

The  flame,  therefore,  at  first  red,  due  to  the  man- 
ganese, becomes  brighter  as  the  carbon  is  attacked, 
until  it  is  so  white  that  it  can  scarcely  be  looked 
at  with  the  naked  eye,  but  finally  the  sudden  drop- 
ping of  the  flame  gives  notice  that  the  carbon 
is  all  burned  out,  and  the  blue  tinge  shows  that  the 
iron  is  being  attacked  and  that  it  is  time  to  shut  off 
the  blast. 

The  metal  in  the  converter  is  then  practically 
liquid  wrought  iron. 

27 


Bessemer  Process. 

The  converter  is  then  laid  on  its  side  again,  the 
blast  shut  off,  and  a  certain  amount  of  spiegel  added 
so  as  to  give  the  amount  of  carbon,  manganese  and 
silicon  desired  in  the  steel,  which  is  then  ready  to 
be  poured  into  the  molds. 

Each  Bessemer  plant  has  from  two  to  four  con- 
verters, with  appliances  for  pouring  in  the  molten 
pig  iron  and  pouring  out  the  molten  steel.  Blowing 
engines  must  also  be  provided,  and,  when  necessary, 
cupolas  for  melting  the  pig  iron. 

CHAPTER  V. 

OPEN  HEARTH  PROCESS  OF  MAKING  RAIL 
STEEL. 

In  the  basic  process  (which  is  the  one  commonly 
used)  the  charge  is  placed  on  the  bottom  of  specially 
designed  furnaces,  and  over  its  surface  a  gas  flame 
plays  back  and  forth.  The  flame  is  maintained  at 
such  a  high  temperature  that  the  charge  is  melted  or 
kept  molten,  and  so  remains,  until  the  proper  propor- 
tion of  carbon  is  obtained,  and  the  steel  is  then 
tapped  out  into  a  ladle. 

The  furnace  is  rectangular  in  shape,  and  com- 
prises a  hearth  which  contains  the  charge,  covered 
with  an  arched  roof  of  bricks  9  inches  to  12  inches 
thick,  with  ports  or  passages  at  each  end,  the  air 
and  gas  for  combustion  entering  at  one  end  and  leav- 
ing at  the  other;  regenerative  chambers  at  each  end, 
connected  with  the  ports  by  vertical  flues  leading  to 
the  chimney;  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  flues  small 
chambers  for  catching  small  particles  of  cinder  or 
dirt. 

The  hearth  consists  usually  of  metal  plates  lined 
with  silica  bricks  on  top  of  which  are  placed  mag- 
nesite  bricks  covered  with  crushed  dolomite,  some- 

28 


Open  Hearth  Process. 

times  mixed  with  a  little  pitch  or  tar.  The  hearth 
is  rectangular  in  shape,  with  charging  doors  in  front, 
and  is  provided  at  the  back  with  a  tap  hole  which 
is  stopped  up  with  refractory  material.  The  roof 
and  walls  above  the  slag  of  the  charge  are  built  of 
silica  bricks,  and  below  of  magnesite  bricks. 

The  regenerators  are  fire-brick  chambers  nearly 
filled  with  bricks  set  on  edge  and  arranged  so  as  to 
leave  a  greater  number  of  small  passages,  which  ab- 
stract most  of  the  heat  from  the  outgoing  waste 
gases,  and  return  it  later  to  the  incoming  cold  gases 
for  combustion. 

Reversing  valves  are  located  where  the  gas  and 
air  flues  meet  before  entering  the  regenerators,  and 
about  every  twenty  minutes  while  the  furnace  is  in 
operation,  the  valves  are  shifted  and  the  currents  of 
air  and  gas  turned  in  the  opposite  direction. 

With  this  type  of  furnace  a  temperature  of  4,000 
degrees  Fahrenheit  can  be  attained. 

While  in  the  Bessemer  process,  pig  iron  only  is 
used  as  the  charge  in  the  converter,  in  the  Open 
Hearth  process,  wrought  iron  or  steel  scrap  of  any 
character,  as  well  as  pig  iron,  may  be  used,  as  the 
high  temperature  of  the  furnace  will  readily  melt 
the  scrap.  This  is  the  great  economical  feature  of 
the  Open  Hearth  process — as  the  charge  may  consist 
of,  all  scrap,  all  pig,  one-half  scrap  and  one-half 
pig,  or  any  other  proportion  of  each  or  both,  as  may 
appear  most  advantageous  at  each  mill. 

When  the  pig  iron  or  scrap  contains  too  much 
phosphorus,  burnt  lime  is  added,  and  the  resulting 
slag  will  absorb  the  phosphorus,  thus  taking  it  out 
of  the  metal. 

Each  furnace  has  several  charging  doors.  They 
were  originally  charged  by  hand,  but  in  the  modern 

29 


Open  Hearth  Process. 

large  furnaces,  the  molten  pig  iron,  solid  pig,  and 
scrap,  are  all  inserted  in  the  furnace  by  a  charging 
machine. 

Furnaces  used  in  this  country  for  the  manufacture 
of  rail  steel  have  a  capacity  of  about  40  to  100  tons, 
although  some  hold  as  much  as  250  tons;  the  latter 
are  called  continuous  or  Talbot  furnaces,  and  only 
from  75  to  100  tons  are  tapped  from  the  furnace 
at  one  time. 

A  heat  usually  takes  from  8  to  12  hours,  and  a 
furnace  will  make  about  12  to  20  heats  per  week, 
depending  upon  the  size. 

When  completely  melted  the  molten  metal  should 
contain  about  .60  per  cent  carbon.  To  determine 
this,  a  sample  is  taken  out  in  a  spoon  and  poured 
into  a  small  mold,  then  chilled  in  water  and  broken. 
Examination  of  the  fracture  gives  the  desired  in- 
formation, and  small  quantities  of  ore  or  pig  are 
then  added,  in  order  to  bring  the  carbon  to  the  right 
proportion. 

Just  before  tapping  a  small  amount  of  ferro-man- 
ganese  is  usually  thrown  into  the  furnace  to  effect  a 
partial  deoxidation  of  the  bath,  and  assist  in  retain- 
ing the  proper  proportion  of  carbon. 

When  the  bath  is  in  the  right  condition,  as  regards 
both  composition  and  temperature,  it  is  run  out  of 
the  furnace  through  the  tapping  hole,  is  caught  in  a 
ladle,  and  then  poured  into  the  molds. 

The  practice  most  generally  followed  is  to  work 
the  carbon  down  below  the  amount  desired  in  the 
steel,  and  then  bring  it  up  by  adding  some  form  of 
recarburizer,  as  hot  iron,  spiegel,  coal  or  coke. 

A  few  of  the  mills  tap  the  furnace  as  soon  as  the 
carbon  gets  down  to  or  slightly  below  the  amount 
desired,  and  then  bring  it  up  to  the  proper  propor- 
tion by  adding  coal  or  coke  in  the  ladle. 

30 


Open  Hearth  Process. 

The  Open  Hearth  process  may  be  either  acid  or 
basic,  though  the  latter  is  in  more  general  use. 

In  the  basic  process  a  large  amount  of  lirne  is 
used  in  melting  down  the  steel  in  order  to  remove 
some  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  charge,  whereas  no 
lime  is  used  in  the  acid  charge. 

In  the  acid  process  the  hearth  is  made  of  ordi- 
nary silica  fire-brick;  in  the  basic  the  fire-brick 
is  of  magnesia  or  basic  material,  as  the  ordinary 
fire-brick  would  be  attacked  by  the  lime. 

In  the  acid  process  no  phosphorus  is  removed, 
and  the  furnace  charge  must  therefore  be  as  low  in 
that  element  as  is  desired  in  the  finished  product. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

FROM  FURNACE  OR  CONVERTER  TO  ROLL- 
ING MILL. 

A  BLOW  of  BESSEMER  STEEL— In  the  Bes- 
semer process  each  melt  of  steel  made  in  the  con- 
verter is  caller  a  blow,  but  also  called,  as  in  Open 
Hearth  process,  a  heat.  Each  blow  furnishes  from 
5  to  15  tons  of  molten  steel,  depending  upon  the  size 
of  the  converter,  and  each  converter  can  make  from 
15  to  25  blows  every  12  hours. 

A  HEAT  OF  OPEN  HEARTH  STEEL— In  the 
Open  Hearth  process  each  melt  of  steel  made  in  the 
furnace  is  called  a  heat.  Each  heat  furnishes  from 
40  to  70  tons  of  molten  steel,  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  furnace,  and  each  furnace  can  make  one 
heat  every  8  to  12  hours. 

LADLE — Both  in  the  converter  and  the  furnace  a 
considerable  amount  of  slag  or  cinder  is  formed, 
which  rises  to  the  top  and  floats  on  the  surface  of 
molten  steel.  In  order  to  prevent  the  slag  from  enter- 
ing the  molds,  the  molten  mass  is  poured  from  the 
converter,  or  tapped  from  the  furnace,  into  a  ladle. 

31 


From  Furnace  to  Rolling  Mill. 

The  ladle  is  a  large  pot  made  of  iron  or  steel 
plates  lined  with  fire-brick.  It  is  provided  with  a 
hole  in  the  bottom,  called  the  nozzle,  through  which 
the  contents  are  discharged  into  the  molds.  The 
discharge  is  regulated  by  a  stopper  consisting  of  a 
steel  rod  enclosed  in  special  hollow  fire-bricks;  the 
brick  on  the  lower  end  fits  over  the  nozzle  and  is 
called  the  stopper  head,  the  upper  end  is  con- 
nected with  a  lever  on  the  outside  of  the  ladle.  The 
stopper  head  is  usually  of  graphite.  Good  prac- 
tice tends  towards  holding  the  metal  in  the  ladle  long 
enough  for  the  impurities  to  rise  to  the  surface,  and 
the  time  the  heats  are  so  held  is  an  important  fac- 
tor of  the  soundness  of  the  ingots. 

TEEMING  THE  INGOTS— The  steel  casting  is 
called  an  ingot,  the  molds  into  which  the  molten 
steel  is  poured  are  called  ingot  molds,  and  the 
process  of  filling  the  molds  with  the  molten  metal 
is  called  teeming,  or  pouring.  The  bottom-pouring 
style  of  ladle  is  universally  employed,  as  by  this 
means  slag  can  be  prevented  from  entering  the 
molds,  splashing  of  metal  on  the  sides  of  the  molds 
can  be  avoided,  and  pouring  can  be  better  regulated. 

Occasionally,  through  faulty  setting,  on  account  of 
some  obstruction,  or  through  burning  off  of  the  stop- 
per-head, the  stream  of  steel  cannot  be  completely 
shut  off — this  is  termed  a  gripping  stopper,  and 
if  control  is  lost  entirely  it  is  called  a  running 
stopper. 

At  the  commencement  of  teeming  the  stopper  fre- 
quently sticks,  or  the  metal  may  solidify  around  the 
nozzle,  thus  preventing  its  ready  flow;  in  such  case  a 
pricker  of  wood  or  steel  is  forced  up  through  the 
nozzle  in  order  to  start  the  flow.  If,  as  sometimes 
happens,  due  to  chilling,  the  pricker  fails  to  open  the 
nozzle,  the  hot  metal  must  be  poured  over  the  top  of 
the  ladle,  and  this  is  called  a  chilled  heat. 

32 


From  Furnace  to  Rolling  Mill. 

INGOTS — The  ingot  molds  are  usually  rectang- 
ular in  cross  section,  open  at  both  top  and  bottom, 
and  vary  in  size  at  the  different  mills,  from  18  inches 
by  19  inches  to  23  inches  by  29  inches  at  the  bottom, 
tapering  to  slightly  smaller  dimensions  at  the  top, 
and  are  from  66  inches  to  82  inches  in  height.  Each 
Bessemer  blow  makes  from  four  to  ten  ingots  while 
each  Open  Hearth  heat  makes  from  15  to  40  ingots. 

Tne  ingot  molds  are  set  on  small  cars  or  buggies 
running  on  a  track,  so  they  may  be  removed  expedi- 
tiously  to  the  stripper. 

STRIPPER— The  stripper  is  a  machine  which  lifts 
the  ingot  mold  off  the  ingot,  leaving  the  latter  stand- 
ing upright  on  the  car.  The  stripping  should  be 
done  as  soon  as  the  outside  of  the  ingot  has  solidi- 
fied. The  ingot  is  then  weighed  and  is  taken  up  by 
a  traveling  crane  and  placed  in  a  reheating  furnace 
called  a  soaking  pit. 

SOAKING  PITS— These  are  furnaces  in  which  the 
ingots  are  placed  and  allowed  to  remain  until  the 
temperature  in  all  parts  of  the  ingot  has  become 
equalized.  They  are  then  ready  for  the  rolling  mill. 

The  ingots  must  always  be  kept  in  a  vertical  po- 
sition until  they  are  taken  out  of  the  soaking  pits, 
in  order  that  none  of  the  molten  metal  in  the  interior 
of  the  ingot  may  escape,  (called  "bled  ingots")  and 
so  that  the  usual  shrinkage  cavity  will  be  centrally 
located.  A  delay  between  teeming  and  stripping  in- 
gots, and  between  stripping  and  charging  in  the 
soaking  pits,  may  seriously  affect  the  soundness  of 
the  ingots.  The  best  practice  requires  the  hot  ingots 
to  be  placed  in  the  soaking  pits  as  soon  as  possible 
after  they  are  teemed,  stripped  and  weighed. 

RECARBURIZATION— This  means  the  addition 
of  carbon,  in  some  form,  in  order  to  obtain  the  de- 
sired proportion  of  that  element  in  the  finished  steel. 

33 


From  Furnace  to  Rolling  Mill. 

It  is  also  used  to  describe  the  addition  of  other  ma- 
terials in  order  to  give  the  steel  the  desired  composi- 
tion and  to  effect  its  deoxidation.  In  the  latter  sense 
it  is  preferable  to  call  this  material  additions.  To 
indicate  some  particular  material,  its  name  is  pre- 
fixed; e.  g.,  Manganese  addition. 

ADDITIONS — The  additions  are  frequently  made 
cold,  generally  in  the  ladle,  and  are  termed  ladle 
additions. 

If  they  are  in  such  amounts  that  there  is  danger 
of  chilling  the  metal  they  may  be  preheated,  or 
melted,  or  added  in  the  furnace,  in  which  case  they 
are  termed  furnace  additions. 

In  manufacture  of  rail  steel  the  usual  additions 
are  silicon  and  aluminum,  the  former  being  added 
in  the  ladle,  the  latter  in  the  ingot  molds.  Titanium 
is  also  used. 

These  additions  tend  to  purify  the  metal,  prevent 
segregation,  and  give  quiet-setting  steel.  Aluminum 
and  titanium,  however,  tend  to  increase  the  pipe. 


PART  III 

ROLLING  THE  RAIL 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  mechanical  treatment  of  the  rail  in  rolling, 
is  of  at  least  equal  importance  with  the  work  of  ob- 
taining sound  steel  of  the  proper  chemical  composi- 
tion. 

Sound  ingots,  free  from  blow  holes,  pipes,  segrega- 
tion and  impurities,  are  only  preliminary  to  rolling 
good  rails. 

Wearing  qualities,  resistance  to  abrasion,  great 
strength  and  toughness,  are  qualities  that  depend 
largely  upon  the  rolling  practice,  and  the  fineness  of 
grain  developed  thereby.  The  more  mechanical  work 
done  on  the  rail,  the  greater  will  be  its  toughness 
and  ductility. 

The  rolling-mill  practice  at  the  various  steel  plants 
varies  considerably,  as  will  be  seen  by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  table  on  page  42,  which  shows  the  dif- 
ference in  the  size  of  ingots  used  and  in  the  number 
of  passes  used  in  the  blooming  and  shaping  mills. 
On  account  of  this  variation  no  one  method  can  be 
described  which  would  apply  to  the  methods  used  at 
more  than  one  mill.  While  the  table  gives  general 
information  concerning  all  the  rolling  mills  in  Amer- 
ica, a  detailed  description  of  the  rolling  mill  practice 
followed  at  two  of  the  mills,  with  details  of  steel 
manufacturing  process  at  one  of  them,  is  given  on 
pages  44  and  45. 

Good  mill  practice  tends  towards  increasing  the 
number  of  passes,  decreasing  the  amount  of  reduc- 
tion in  cross  section  per  pass,  and  perhaps  getting 
the  desired  output  by  increased  speed  of  the  rolls; 
not  by  digging  into  and  tearing  the  metal,  as  is 

37 


Rolling  the  Rail. 

liable  to  be  done  in  the  cases  where  too  few  passes 
and  heavy  draft  are  customary. 

Reducing  the  metal  gradually  by  a  large  number 
of  passes,  tends  to  work  and  knead  the  metal  and 
produce  a  tougher  and  more  elastic  rail.  It  would 
seem  that  more  time  might  be  given  to  the  last  five 
or  six  passes  through  the  rolls,  and  that  the  finish- 
ing temperature  should  be  as  low  as  possible  in  order 
to  get  a  fine-grained  structure. 

Some  mills  are  installing  continuous  reheating 
furnaces  to  insure  the  rolling  of  blooms  into  finished 
rails  at  more  uniform  temperatures;  the  reheating 
furnace  also  tends  to  relieve  internal  stresses  caused 
by  blooming. 

One  or  two  mills  make  a  careful  examination  of 
the  surfaces  of  the  cold  blooms  and  cut  out  all  sur- 
face imperfections  before  reheating  and  rolling  into 
rails. 

One  mill  has  installed  a  milling  machine  which  re- 
moves a  thin  layer  of  metal  from  the  head  and  base 
of  the  hot  rail  in  its  passage  through  the  rolling 
mill,  surface  seams  and  other  imperfections  being 
eliminated  with  this  layer  of  metal. 

One  or  two  mills  make  a  regular  practice  of  dis- 
carding from  20  per  cent  to  30  per  cent,  thus  elimi- 
nating the  "A"  rails,  the  top  rail  of  their  product 
being  given  the  letter  "B." 

The  question  of  heat-treating  finished  rails  has 
been  given  consideration  in  recent  years,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  length  of  the  rail  and  the  unbalanced 
character  of  its  section,  it  is  a  very  difficult  prob- 
lem to  solve,  and  a  satisfactory  method  has  not  yet 
been  developed. 


38 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  ROLLING  MILL. 

This  is  a  device  for  reducing  and  shaping  the  sec- 
tion of  the  steel  ingot  into  the  finished  rail,  the  de- 
sired result  being  obtained  by  passing  the  hot  metal 
between  revolving  cylinders,  termed  rolls. 

A  rolling  mill  consists  of  the  rolls,  set  in  a  suit- 
able framework  to  support  them,  called  housings, 
and  connected  with  the  engine  by  spindles  and 
pinions. 

The  rolls  consist  of  (a)  a  middle  portion  called 
the  body  or  barrel,  which  comes  in  contact  with 
the  piece  being  rolled;  (b)  the  ends,  which  rest  in 
the  bearings,  called  necks  or  journals,  which  are 
of  smaller  diameter  than  the  middle  portion  to  per- 
mit the  body  of  the  rolls  to  come  close  together;  and 
(c)  the  portion  at  the  fillet  connecting  the  body  and 
the  necks  called  the  shoulders. 

The  rolls  are  cast  to  rough  shape,  with  necessary 
depressions  or  grooves  to  give  the  metal  the  de- 
sired shape,  and  then  turned  down  to  exact  size. 

While  in  use  the  rolls  are  sprayed  with  water  to 
prevent  them  from  becoming  overheated. 

A  pass  is  the  opening  between  a  pair  of  rolls 
formed  by  corresponding  grooves,  and  is  also  the 
term  used  to  describe  the  passing  of  the  piece  of 
nietal  between  the  rolls. 

The  housings  are  of  cast  iron  or  cast  steel,  secured 
to  massive  foundations  so  they  will  be  perfectly 
rigid.  Each  housing  looks  like  an  elongated  "U,m 
the  open  space  being  large  enough  to  hold  suitable 
bearings  or  brasses  in  which  the  necks  of  the  rolls 
rest,  the  bearings  being  held  in  place  by  chucks. 

A  set  of  rolls  and  the  housings  which  hold  them 
are  called  a  stand,  and  two  or  more  stands  con- 
nected together  constitute  a  train.  The  stands  may 

39 


The  Rolling  Mill. 

be  placed  one  in  front  of  the  other;  i.  e.,  in  tandem. 

Mills  are  termed  two-high,  or  three-high,  de- 
pending upon  whether  there  are  two  rolls  or  three 
rolls  one  above  the  other  in  the  stand. 

The  two-high  mill  is  generally  used  for  plate  and 
shape  mills,  the  three-high  for  blooming  mills;  both 
kinds  being,  therefore,  necessary  in  rolling  rails. 

The  pieces  of  metal  from  which  rails  are  rolled 
are  too  large  to  be  manipulated  at  the  rolls,  or  from 
one  stand  to  another,  by  hand.  The  metal  is  there- 
fore supported  on  a  set  of  rollers,  one  on  either  side 
of  a  roll  stand,  called  a  table.  The  table  rollers  are 
cornected  with  the  engine,  and  being  turned  in  one 
direction  carry  the  piece  back  through  the  rolls 
through  which  it  has  just  passed,  or,  turned  in  the 
reverse  direction,  carry  the  piece  on  to  the  next 
stand"  of  rolls. 

In  order  that  the  metal  may  receive  an  equal 
amount  of  work  on  all  sides,  a  device  called  a  man- 
ipulator is  used;  this  has  projections  called  fin- 
gers passing  up  between  the  rollers  in  the  table, 
which  catch  the  edge  of  the  piece  and  turn  it  through 
90  degrees  after  a  certain  number  of  passes. 

With  the  three-high  mill,  the  piece  being  rolled 
must  be  raised  or  lowered  a  distance  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  middle  roll ;  two  kinds  of  tables,  op- 
erated by  hydraulic  power,  are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. When  the  whole  table  is  raised  and  lowered, 
but  always  remaining  horizontal,  it  is  called  a  lift- 
ing table;  when  the  table  is  pivoted  so  that  only 
the  end  nearest  the  rolls  is  raised  or  lowered  it  is 
called  a  tilting  table.  The  former  is  generally  used 
for  blooming  mills,  the  latter  for  plate  and  shape 
mills;  both  types  being  used  in  the  rolling  of  rails. 

With  large  pieces,  where  marks  on  the  surface  are 
not  objectionable,  the  rolls  have  shallow  grooves  cut 

40 


The  Rolling  Mill. 

in  their  surface,  called  ragging  or  cogging,  whereby 
a  better  grip  of  the  rolls  on  the  piece  is  obtainable. 

The  size  or  rating  of  a  mill  (for  everything  but 
plates)  is  based  upon  the  diameter  of  the  rolls;  thus 
a  30-inch  blooming  mill,  or  a  16-inch  bar  mill,  means 
that  the  rolls  are  of  those  respective  diameters. 

When  used  for  rolling  small  pieces  the  mill  is 
called  a  bar  or  merchant  mill ;  for  larger  sections 
it  is  known  as  a  shape  mill. 

The  ingots  are  first  rolled  in  a  blooming  mill, 
producing  blooms,  billets,  or  slabs,  which  then  pass 
to  the  shape,  bar,  or  merchant  mills. 

The  name  bloom  is  used  where  the  cross  section 
of  the  piece  is  greater  than  36  square  inches,  bil- 
lets and  slabs  when  the  width  is  not  less  than 
twice  the  thickness.  Another  distinction  frequently 
drawn  is  that  ordinarily  a  bloom  will  be  rolled  im- 
mediately, by  the  mill  that  made  it,  into  the  finished 
product,  whereas  a  billet  is  usually  a  merchantable 
product  and  sold  to  other  mills. 


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CHAPTER  IX. 

OPERATION  OF  ROLLING  MILL  AT  GARY, 
IND. 

From  the  Railway  Age  Gazette. 
The  first  group  of  rolls  consists  of  four  stands  of 
continuous  40-inch  mills  arranged  in  tandem,  re- 
quiring no  manipulation  from  stand  to  stand.  Suffi- 
cient distance  is  left  between  successive  stands  to 
enable  a  quarter  turn  of  the  ingot  or  bloom  to  be 
made,  so  that  it  is  worked  qually  on  all  sides.  The 
first  two  stands  are  equipped  with  42-inch  rolls,  en- 
abling 20-inch  and  24-inch  ingots  to  be  used. 

After  passing  these  four  mills  the  ingot  is  sent  to 
a  40-inch,  three-high,  blooming  mill,"  equipped  with 
lifting  tables,  and  is  given  five  passes.  The  result- 
ing bloom,  IVz  inches  by  8  inches,  is  sheared  in  two, 
and  the  crop  ends  or  butts  cut  off  and  are  taken 
outside  the  mill. 

Each  bloom  then  goes  through  a  28-inch  roughing 
mill  which  is  equipped  with  tilting  tables.  This  mill 
has  three  stands  of  rolls,  the  roughing  stand  being 
three-high,  the  other  two-high.  The  roughing  mill 
gives  the  bloom  three  passes. 

It  then  goes  through  a  two-high  forming  mill  for 
one  pass. 

It  is  then  sent  to  the  finishing  mills,  consisting  of 
five  stands  of  28-inch  mills.  After  the  dummy  pass, 
the  bloom  is  transferred  to  the  first  edging,  which 
is  in  this  same  mill,  but  the  second  stand,  and  turns 
back  on  an  elevated  table  to  the  second  edging,  which 
is  in  line  with  the  28-inch  roughing  mill.  It  then 
travels  by  chain  transfer  to  the  lower  tables,  and 
on  the  leading  pass  goes  through  a  stand  which  also 
is  in  line  with  the  roughing  mill  and  driven  by  the 
same  motor,  and  continues  on  to  the  third  stand  of 
the  28-inch  finishing  mill,  this  being  the  eighteenth 
and  last  pass. 

44 


Rolling  Mill  at  Gary. 

While  the  rails  are  getting  the  finishing  pass  they 
are  branded. 

After  the  finishing  pass  the  rail  travels  through 
to  the  hot  saws,  of  which  there  are  five,  thus  cutting 
four  rails  to  length  at  one  operation.  These  four 
rails  consist  of  half  the  ingot.  The  saws  have  42- 
inch  blades  arranged  to  be  raised  and  lowered  in 
unison  by  one  controller  from  the  hot-saw  operator. 

After  being  sawed  and  before  passing  to  the  cool- 
ing beds  they  are  stamped  with  heat  number  and 
rail  letter. 

As  the  capacity  of  the  mill  is  4,000  gross  tons 
per  24  hours,  there  must  be  four-rail  length  sawed 
about  every  half-minute  when  working  to  full  ca- 
pacity. 

CHAPTER  X. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL  AND  OPERATION 
OF  ROLLING  MILL  AT  PLANT  OF  ALGOMA 
STEEL  CORPORATION,  SAULT  STE.  MARIE. 

The  blast  furnace  metal  is  poured  into  mixers,  of 
which  there  are  two,  one  at  the  Bessemer  plant  with 
a  capacity  of  150  tons,  and  one  at  the  Open  Hearth 
plant  with  a  capacity  of  250  tons. 

Rail  steel  is  made  by  both  Bessemer  and  Open 
Hearth  straight  processes,  but  as  the  demand  for 
Bessemer  rail  is  decreasing  rapidly,  the  Company  is 
now  contemplating  the  introduction  of  the  duplex 
process,  which  will  enable  them  to  keep  their  Besse- 
mer plant  in  operation  and  reduce  the  time  in  the 
Open  Hearth  furnace. 

The  Open  Hearth  furnaces  are  charged  with 
limestone,  ore  or  roll  scale,  rail  ends,  bloom  butts, 
and  other  scrap,  including  crop  ends  of  all  kinds, 
and  hot  metal,  in  the  order  mentioned.  No  scrap 

45 


Operations  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

outside  of  that  made  in  the  plant  is  used,  as  the 
location  of  the  plant  does  not  permit  such  to  be 
obtained  at  economical  prices. 

At  the  Bessemer  plant  there  are  two  five-ton 
converters  with  a  capacity  of  850  tons  per  twenty- 
four  hours.  There  are  also  four  cupolas  for  melt- 
ing cold  pig  iron. 

At  the  Open  Hearth  plant  there  are  eight  basic- 
lined,  stationary  furnaces;  four  of  40  tons  capacity 
each,  and  four  of  80  tons  capacity  each.  Total 
capacity  25,000  tons  per  month. 

The  carbon  is  worked  down  to  about  .45  to  .55 
per  cent  and  recarburized  by  adding  Pocahontas 
coal  to  the  ladle;  if  the  carbon  gets  below  .40  per 
cent,  hot  metal  from  the  mixer  is  added  in  the 
furnace. 

About  25  per  cent  of  the  ferro-manganese  is 
added  to  the  furnace  just  before  tapping,  the  re- 
mainder being  added  to  the  ladle,  as  is  also  the 
f erro-silicon ;  all  the  ladle  additions  being  made 
while  the  metal  is  pouring  from  the  furnace.  No 
other  additions  are  made  either  in  the  ladle  or  the 
ingot  molds. 

The  average  time  of  a  heat  in  the  furnace  is 
twelve  to  fourteen  hours  for  the  larger,  and  seven 
to  ten  hours  for  the  smaller,  furnaces. 

The  average  time  required  for  tapping  from  fur- 
nace to  ladle  is  ten  minutes,  and  after  tapping,  the 
metal  is  immediately  teemed  into  the  ingots,  through 
a  2-inch  nozzle,  controlled  so  that  the  stream  of 
molten  steel  is  gradually  decreased  as  top  of  ingot 
it  reached. 

The  ingot  molds  are  of  two  sizes,  one  19  inches 
by  23  inches,  the  other  18  inches  by  19  inches,  at 
bottom,  by  72  inches  and  70  inches  in  height. 

The  average  number  of  ingots  per  heat  is  fifteen. 

46 


Operations  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

The  average  time  betwen  casting  and  stripping 
is  thirty-five  minutes. 

After  stripping,  the  ingots  are  weighed  and  taken 
to  the  soaking  pits,  of  which  there  are  five,  having 
a  total  capacity  of  96  ingots. 

The  average  time  between  stripping  and  charging 
is  fifteen  minutes. 

The  ingots  are  held  in  the  soaking  pits  about  two 
and  one-half  hours. 

The  ingots  are  bloomed  in  from  16  to  19  passes 
to  a  cross  section  of  8  inches  by  S1^  inches,  in  a 
two-high,  35-inch  reversing  mill  driven  by  either 
4000  h.  p.  motor  or  55-inch  by  60-inch  twin  reversing 
steam  engine.  Average  time  for  blooming  each  in- 
got is  two  minutes. 

The  blooms  are  cropped  by  a  vertical  steam  shear, 
and  cut  into  two  parts,  each  part  ordinarily  making 
two  rails  (of  the  heavier  sections). 

The  blooms  are  taken  by  a  transfer  crane  to  re- 
heating furnaces,  of  which  there  are  three,  each 
holding  16  blooms;  the  blooms  remain  in  these  fur- 
naces from  30  to  60  minutes. 

The  bloom  then  is  given  eight  passes  in  a  three- 
high,  23-inch  roughing  and  intermediate  mill,  driven 
by  a  36-inch  and  65-inch  by  68-inch  tandem  com- 
pound steam  engine. 

The  bar  is  then  given  three  passes  in  a  three- 
high,  28-inch  finishing  stand,  driven  by  a  40-inch 
by  48-inch  steam  engine. 

The  total  number  of  passes  from  ingot  to  rail  is 
from  28  to  30. 

Average  time  between  roughing  mill  and  finishing 
mill  is  2  minutes  45  seconds,  and  the  first  rail  is 
sawed  25  seconds  after. 

The  rails  are  sawed  to  length  singly. 


Operations  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 

The  cambering  machine  is  well  regulated  and  the 
rails  are  turned  while  on  the  hot  beds,  so  that 
nearly  straight  rails,  slightly  base  high,  go  to  the 
straightening  presses. 

The  stamping  is  done  by  a  machine  wheel,  and 
the  rail  letter  applied  by  hand. 

There  are  two  hot  beds,  each  holding  65  rails, 
five  cold  straightening  presses,  and  five  pairs  of 
drills;  all  well  covered  and  protected  from  the 
weather. 

The  rails  are  skidded  on  to  cars  placed  on  a 
depressed  track. 

The  mill  can  furnish  rails  up  to  forty  feet  in 
length,  and  provision  is  to  be  made  for  longer 
lengths. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

FROM  ROLLING  MILL  TO  CARS. 

Good  rails  cannot  be  made  from  poor  ingots  but 
poor  rails  can  be  made  from  good  ingots;  therefore, 
as  much  care  should  be  used  in  the  processes  fol- 
lowing the  rolling  as  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  steel,  and  in  the  rolling  of  the  rail. 

At  Gary  and  Birmingham  several  rails  are  cut 
to  length  at  one  operation  by  gang  saws,  but  at 
nearly  all  the  other  mills  the  rails  are  cut  to  length 
singly. 

While  on  their  way  from  the  hot  saws  to  the 
cambering  machine,  the  heat  number,  rail  letter, 
and  ingot  number,  where  required,  are  stamped  on 
the  web  of  the  rail. 

The  outer  edges  of  the  base  of  the  rail  cool  more 
rapidly  and  become  more  rigid  than  the  head.  The 
head  and  base  are  cut  to  same  length  at  the  hot 
saws;  but  as  the  head  is  the  hotter  its  shrinkage 


Rolling  Mill  to  Cars. 

would  be  greater  and  its  cold  length  less  than  the 
base.  This  is  corrected  by  the  cambering  rolls, 
which  stretch  the  head  to  the  length  necessary  to 
compensate  for  its  greater  shrinkage,  and  leave  the 
rail  straight  after  it  has  cooled. 

The  cambering  machine  is  somewhat  similar  in 
action  to  a  roller  rail-curving  machine;  it  generally 
consists  of  two  horizontal  rolls  bearing  on  the  web 
of  the  rail,  with  vertical  rolls  bearing  on  the  head. 
The  vertical  rolls  have  a  screw-motion,  and  by  regu- 
lating the  pressure  imparted  by  the  vertical  rolls 
(which  will  depend  upon  the  section  of  rail  being 
rolled  and  the  temperature  at  which  it  reaches  the 
cambering  machine),  the  amount  of  curve  or  sweep 
put  in  the  hot  rail  is  just  sufficient  to  produce  a 
rail  that  is  straight,  or  nearly  so,  when  cold. 

The  differences  in  form  and  area  between  head 
and  base  of  rail,  makes  the  rails  tend  to  cool  high 
or  low  unless  they  are  cambered  as  above;  no  diffi- 
culty is  encountered  in  having  the  rails  cool  straight, 
or  nearly  so,  in  line. 

This  is  a  very  important  detail  of  the  rail  manu- 
facturing process,  because  the  straighter  the  rails 
when  they  leave  the  cooling  beds  the  less  the  work 
required  on  them  at  the  cold-straightening  presses, 
and  consequently  less  danger  of  rupturing  the  metal- 
lic structure. 

It  is  impossible  to  take  a  bend  or  kink  out  of  a 
cold  rail  without  straining  it  beyond  its  elastic 
limit. 

After  leaving  the  cambering  machine  the  rails 
pass  to  the  hot  beds,  and  after  being  allowed  to 
cool,  are  cold-straightened  in  the  gagging  presses. 

After  straightening,  the  rails  are  inspected,  the 
bolt  holes  drilled,  rails  re-inspected,  and  then  they 
are  loaded  on  cars  for  shipment. 

49 


Rolling  Mill  to  Cars. 

At  some  mills  the  ends  of  the  cold  rails  are  cut 
perfectly  square  and  true,  and  to  exact  lengths 
specified,  by  milling  machines. 

Most  of  the  mills  are  now  using  electric  magnet 
cranes  for  loading  the  rails  on  cars,  and  with  this 
method  the  danger  of  damage  in  handling  (at  the 
mill)  is  eliminated. 

At  many  of  the  mills  the  hot  beds  are  now  en- 
closed on  all  sides,  thus  preventing  rain  or  snow 
from  coming  in  contact  with  the  hot  rails,  and  also 
keeping  off  strong  winds;  by  this  means,  and  by 
careful  spacing  and  turning  of  rails  on  the  hot  beds, 
uniform  cooling  is  secured. 


50 


PART  IV 

CAUSES  OF  RAIL  FAILURES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Rail  failures  may  be  ascribed  to  three  general 
causes : 

1.  Defects  in   the   rails,   due   to   imperfect   manu- 

facturing processes; 

2.  Defects  in  the  track,  due  to  inferior  construc- 

tion or  maintenance;  and 

3.  Defects  in  equipment,  including  improper  opera- 

tion thereof. 

These  primary  causes  may  be  aggravated  by  care- 
lessness in  loading  or  unloading  rail,  and  by  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  especially  extreme  cold 
weather. 

Statistics  show  that  failures  in  northern  latitudes 
are  much  more  numerous  than  in  warmer  climates, 
under  similar  service  conditions  and  with  the  same 
kind  of  rail.  Steel  is  more  sensitive  to  shock  in 
cold  weather,  and  with  frozen  roadbed  the  shock  is 
undoubtedly  greater  than  in  warm  weather  with 
elastic  roadbed. 

Occasionally  a  rail  will  break  without  any  of  the 
above-named  causes  being  apparently  responsible, 
but  such  cases  are  rare,  and  progress  is  being  made 
towards  development  of  the  causes. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  wheel  loads 
have  about  reached  the  safe  limit  for  the  present 
Carbon  steel  rail,  and  railroad  engineers  are  consid- 
ering what  may  be  done  to  avoid  dangerous  wheel 
pressures;  special  attention  is  being  given  to: 

(a)  Changes  in  locomotive  design, 

(b)  Changing  design  of  wheel  tread  in  order 
to  give  larger  surface  contact  on  the  top  of  the 
rail, 

(c)  Canting  the  rail, 

53 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

(d)  Using  larger  rail  sections, 

(e)  Using  special  alloy  steels  to  increase  the 
hardness  and  tensile   strength,  without   at  the 
same  time  decreasing  the  ductility. 

With  the  large  wheel  loads  now  in  use  the  in- 
jurious effect  of  inferior  material  in  the  rail  is  more 
apparent,  but  the  results  obtained  from  some  rails 
appear  to  indicate  that  the  attention  of  the  manu- 
facturer was  fixed  more  on  quantity  than  upon 
quality  of  the  output. 

It  is  probably  impossible  to  produce  commercially 
a  rail  from  melt-made  steel  that  will  be  wholly  free 
from  internal  defects;  but  with  all  the  flaws  that 
have  been  shown  to  be  so  common,  it  is  likely  that 
a  thousand  rails  give  satisfactory  service  to  every 
one  that  fails,  which  shows  that  these  manufacturing 
defects  can  be  tolerated  if  kept  within  proper 
bounds. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Article  3.-— PIPE. 

This  is  a  defect  which  will  occur  in  every  cast 
steel  ingot,  unless  special  steps  are  taken  to  pre- 
vent it. 

During  the  cooling  and  solidification  of  any  cast- 
ing the  outside,  or  portion  in  contact  with  the  walls 
of  the  mold,  cools  first, .  and  the  cooling  proceeds 
gradually  towards  the  center  of  the  ingot. 

As  the  metal  cools  it  also  contracts,  that  is,  it 
occupies  less  space  when  solid  than  when  liquid,  so 
that  eventually,  a  cone-shaped  opening  in  the  cast- 
ing is  left  near  the  top  of  the  ingot.  This  contrac- 
tion cavity  is  known  as  a  pipe. 

The  photographs  on  the  opposite  page  show  one- 
half  of  two  ingots  which  have  been  split  vertically 
through  the  center,  to  show  the  pipe  that  is  formed 
in  rail-steel  ingots  under  present  mill  practice. 

54 


VERTICAL  SECTION  THROUGH  THE  CENTER 
OF  TWO  INGOTS,  SHOWING  THE  PIPE. 


Fig.  1. 

IN  THIS  INGOT  ALL  PIPE  CAN 
BE  ELIMINATED  BY  A  DISCARD 
OF  ABOUT  16  PER  CENT. 


Fig.   2. 

IN  THIS  INGOT   A   DISCARD   OF 
OVER  50  PER  CENT  WILL  BE  RE- 
QUIRED  IN  ORDER  TO  ELIMIN- 
ATE THE  PIPE. 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

That  portion  of  the  ingot  containing  the  pipe  is 
objectionable  in  any  rolled  product,  and  particu- 
larly so  in  rails;  therefore,  especial  pains  is  usually 
taken  to  discard  it.  This  is  not  difficult  to  do  when 
the  pipe  is  confined  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  ingot, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

When,  however,  the  pipe  is  broken  up,  and  con- 
tinues down  into  the  central  and  lower  portions  of 
the  ingot,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  an  extremely  dan- 
gerous condition  presents  itself.  In  such  case,  the 
usual  amount  of  discard  may  not  disclose  the  sepa- 
rate cavities  existing  below  the  main  cavity,  and 
rails  containing  these  dangerous  defects,  if  placed  in 
service,  are  liable  to  sudden  failure  without  previous 
indications  thereof. 

When  sufficient  deoxidizers  are  used  to  purify  the 
steel,  then,  as  must  be  expected,  a  small  cavity 
starts  to  form  in  the  top  under  the  cap  of  the 
ingot,  and  its  development  can  be  retarded  by  early 
stripping  of  the  ingot  and  promptly  charging  it  into 
the  soaking  pit. 

The  shrinkage  cavity  is  of  greater  volume  and 
depth  in  long  ingots  than  in  those  which  are  short 
and  stubby. 

Pipes  always  occur  in  the  center  of  the  ingot,  and 
consequently  appear  in  the  center,  or  web,  of  the 
finished  rail ;  except  when,  as  heretofore  pointed  out, 
the  ingots  are  not  kept  vertical. 

The  sides  of  the  pipe  are  pressed  closely  together 
in  the  passage  of  the  ingot  through  the  rolls,  and 
if  the  walls  of  the  pipe  in  a  broken  rail  be  examined, 
they  will  be  found  to  be  smooth  instead  of  granular, 
showing  that  the  walls  did  not  weld  together. 

Pipe  may  be  lessened,  or  altogether  eliminated  by : 

(a)  Casting  in  wide  ingots, 

(b)  Casting  in  sand  molds, 

56 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

(c)  Slow  feeding, 

(d)  Liquid  compression, 

(e)  Casting  with  the  large  end  of  the  ingot 
up, 

(f)  Use  of  a  sinking-head,  or  other  means 
of  retarding  the  cooling  of  the  top  walls  of  the 
ingot, 

(g)  Combinations  of  the  above. 

Some  of  these  methods  are  now  being  tried  and 
give  promise  of  good  results. 

Some  mills,  by  exercising  great  care  in  deoxi- 
dizing and  obtaining  a  quiet-setting  steel,  and  by 
prompt  handling  of  the  ingot  from  the  teeming  to 
the  soaking  pit,  so  reduce  the  pipe  that  it  is  all 
removed  in  the  usual  discard. 

Article  4.— SEGREGATION. 

The  elements  Carbon,  Sulphur  and  Phosphorus 
have  different,  but  lower,  melting  points  than  the 
iron  containing  them;  consequently  those  having 
the  lowest  melting  point  will  tend  to  separate,  and 
to  collect  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  ingot,  that  is, 
the  top  and  center  of  the  ingot,  which  is  the  last 
to  solidify. 

This  concentration  of  these  elements  is  called 
segregation. 

In  addition  to  segregation  of  elements  above  men- 
tioned, there  is  also  found  in  ingots  cast  and  in  rails 
rolled,  compounds  of  these  and  other  elements;  e. 
g.,  iron  oxide,  manganese  sulphide,  etc.  These 
evidently  originate  in  the  slag  formed  prior  to 
teeming  the  ingots,  and  frequently  act  similarly  to 
the  segregating  elements,  and  may  produce  lines  of 
weakness  if  found  in  the  finished  rails  in  excessive 
quantities. 

57 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

The  top  and  center  of  the  ingot  will  therefore 
contain  the  largest  proportion  of  the  impurities  and 
segregated  elements,  and  other  parts  of  the  ingot 
will  have  a  deficit  of  these. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  mill  to  have  the  molten  steel 
leave  the  converter  or  furnace  with  as  small  a  pro- 
portion of  impurities  as  is  commercially  practicable, 
and  to  have  the  elements  distributed  evenly  through- 
out the  ingot. 

The  term  positive  segregation  is  applied  to  cases 
where  too  much  of  an  element  is  found  in  one  por- 
tion of  the  steel,  and  negative  segregation  in  cases 
where  less  than  the  prescribed  amount  is  found. 

Segregation  may  be  lessened  by: 

(a)  Allowing  more  time  in  the  furnace  for 
the  material  to  become  thoroughly  mixed  and 
homogeneous,  and  then  holding  in  the  ladle  long 
enough  to  allow  the  impurities  to  rise  to  the 
top  of  the  molten  metal; 

(b)  Adding  Silicon,  or  Titanium,  to  the  mol- 
ten steel  in  the  ladle  and  holding  as  in  (a),  or 
by  adding  Aluminum  in  the  ingot  mold,  or  by 
both  additions; 

(c)  Casting  in  small  ingots  instead  of  large, 
and  hastening  the  solidfication,  not  only  by  this 
means  but  also  by 

(d)  Casting  at  a  low  temperature, 

(e)  Casting  in  thick-walled  molds,  and 

(f)  Casting  slowly. 

By  use  of  a  sinking-head  the  segregation  all 
forms  in  the  top  part  of  the  ingot  and  is  eliminated, 
with  the  pipe,  in  the  usual  discard. 

Nearly  all  the  mills  are  using  methods  (a)  and 
(b),  as  well  as  some  of  the  other  methods,  with 
good  results. 

While  segregation  is  greatly  reduced  by  use  of 
the  deoxidizers  mentioned   in    (b),  pipe  is  usually 
increased  thereby,  except  in  the  case  of  Silicon. 
58 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 
Article  5.— BLOWHOLES. 

Blowholes  generally  form  in  the  upper  half  of 
the  ingot  which  is  permeated  by  honeycombs  or  dis- 
persed cavities,  due  to  liberation  of  imprisoned 
gases.  These  gases  are  absorbed  or  occluded  in  the 
molten  steel,  but  are  wholly  or  partially  evolved  and 
collect  into  bubbles  when  the  metal  begins  to 
solidify,  and  any  which  cannot  escape  are  mechan- 
ically held  in  little  pockets  called  blowholes  or  gas 
holes. 

Small,  deep-seated  blowholes,  i.  e.,  those  a  con- 
erable  distance  from  the  sides  of  the  ingot,  are  not 
very  objectionable,  and  are  ordinarily  welded  up  in 
rolling.  The  larger  blowholes  may  be  entirely 
prevented  by  a  thorough  deoxidation  of  the  steel  by 
additions  of  Silicon,  Titanium  or  Aluminum.  These 
metals  not  only  prevent  blowholes,  but  also  pre- 
vent the  evolution  of  gas. 

The  complete  elimination  of  iron  oxide  is  the  best 
preventive  of  blowholes. 

If  steel  is  so  thoroughly  deoxidized  that  no  blow- 
holes form,  the  size  of  the  pipe  will  be  correspond- 
ingly increased,  and  conversely,  if  a  sufficient 
number  of  blowholes  be  permitted  to  form,  the  pipe 
may  be  almost  entirely  avoided. 

For  this  reason  some  manufacturers  desire  a 
small  number  of  blowholes  to  form,  so  that  a  deep 
pipe  will  not  necessitate  a  heavy  discard  from  the 
ingot;  but  this  practice  is  dangerous  because  of  the 
difficulty  in  so  controlling  their  position  that  they 
will  be  deep-seated  instead  of  near  the  skin  of  the 
ingot,  and  because  the  blowholes  are  not  always 
welded  up  in  the  rolling. 

If  an  ingot  with  blowholes  near  the  surface  of  its 
sides,  be  permitted  to  remain  longer  than  usual  in 
the  soaking  pit,  the  oxidizing  action  will  remove 

59 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

portions  of  the  metal,  and  with  heavy  reductions 
in  the  blooming  mill,  surface  seams  will  undoubtedly 
be  present  in  the  finished  rail. 

Article  5.— SLAG  INCLUSIONS. 

The  presence  of  slag  in  finished  steel  is  much 
more  universal  than  is  usually  supposed. 

These  slag  inclusions  vary  all  the  way  from 
minute  particles  scarcely  visible  under  the  micro- 
scope, to  pieces  easily  discernible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Slag  inclusions  tend  to  cause  steel  to  be  brittle 
and  unreliable,  and  to  create  microscopic  fissures 
and  flaws  which  continuously  develop  under  service, 
and  often  cause  sudden  failure. 

One  of  the  most  objectionable  impurities  is  man- 
ganese sulphide.  When  the  spiegel  (ferro-mangan- 
ese)  is  added  to  the  molten  metal,  part  of  the 
manganese  is  liable  to  combine  with  the  sulphur  of 
the  steel,  and  given  time  enough,  will  with  all  the 
other  impurities,  float  up  into  the  slag  on  the  top 
of  the  molten  steel. 

Good  practice  requires  an  interval  of  time  between 
the  additions  of  the  spiegel  and  the  teeming  of  the 
ingots.  Some  railroads  classify  as  piped  rails  all 
fractures  which  show  a  seam.  These  may  not 
always  be  due  to  pipe,  but  may  be  slag  or  gas 
seams;  however,  the  effect  is  the  same. 

Article  7.— DISCARD. 

Each  heat  of  steel  differs  from  every  other  heat, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  every  ingot  in  the  same 
heat.  This  dissimilarity  is  due  to  differences  in 
temperature,  to  the  reactions  and  chemical  compo- 
sition resulting  therefrom,  to  varying  condition  of 
molds,  to  time  taken  between  teeming  of  ingots  and 
60 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

placing  them  in  the  soaking  pits,  and  to  conditions 
of  reheating  and  time  when  they  are  given  the  first 
pass  in  the  blooming  mill.  All  these  have  an  influ- 
ence on  the  location  and  amount  of  unsound  metal  in 
the  ingot,  and  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  discard 
to  prevent  getting  into  the  rails. 

The  two  greatest  defects,  pipe  and  segregation, 
are  usually  found  in  the  upper  thirty  per  cent  of 
the  ingot.  Until  some  remedy  has  been  adopted  to 
prevent  or  minimize  their  occurrence,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  specify  that  a  certain  percentage  from 
the  top  of  the  ingot  shall  be  cut  off  and  discarded, 
not  used  in  the  finished  product.  By  this  means  it 
is  hoped  that  nearly  all  of  the  imperfect  metal  will 
be  eliminated. 

However,  the  general  tendency  now  is,  to  require 
the  blooms  to  be  sheared  until  sound  metal  appears. 
This  leaves  a  great  deal  to  the  judgment  of  the 
shear  operator,  and  does  not  always  produce  the 
desired  results. 

The  only  way  to  ascertain  definitely  whether  all 
imperfect  metal  has  been  discarded,  is  to  test  a  por- 
tion of  the  top  rail  of  every  ingot.  This  can  be 
done  by  a  chemical  survey,  or  by  a  nick-and-break 
test  and  examination  of  the  fractured  surfaces. 

Defective  spots  in  the  ingot,  due  to  slag,  blow- 
holes, piping  and  segregation,  will  not  be  removed 
in  rolling  but  must  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible 
in  the  discard. 

In  order  to  get  definite  knowledge  of  the  service 
given  by  rails  from  different  parts  of  the  ingot, 
specifications  now  require  that  each  rail  shall  be 
stamped  with  a  letter  indicating  its  position  in  the 
ingot;  the  top  rail  being  lettered  "A,"  the  next  "B," 

61 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

the  next  "C,"  and  so  on.  These  letters  can  be 
found  on  the  rails  in  the  tracks,  and  are  shown  on 
the  rail  failure  report. 

While  the  practice  of  lettering  the  rails  is  com- 
paratively recent,  statistics  so  far  obtained,  indicate, 
as  was  expected,  that  the  "A"  rails  have  a  larger 
percentage  of  impurities  and  much  greater  segre- 
gation than  the  "B"  or  lower  rails,  that  they  wear 
out  faster,  develop  more  surface  defects,  and  must 
be  removed  from  service  much  sooner  than  the  other 
rails. 

One  or  two  mills  discard  nearly  30  per  cent  from 
every  ingot,  thus  entirely  eliminating  the  "A"  rails, 
the  top  rail  of  their  product  being  given  the  letter 
"B." 

Article  8.— ROLLING-MILL  SEAMS  AND  LAPS. 

In  the  passage  of  the  ingot  through  the  rolls  of 
the  blooming  mill,  the  squeezing  between  the  rolls 
tends  to  crack  and  tear  the  sides  of  the  ingot,  es- 
pecially during  the  first  few  passes,  and  also  tends 
to  open  up  the  surface  blowholes  which  may  exist 
near  the  sides  of  the  ingot. 

This  tendency  is  greater  in  some  mills  than  in 
others,  depending  upon  the  amount  the  ingot  is  re- 
duced in  thickness  at  each  pass  (called  reduction  or 
draft),  and  upon  the  speed  of  the  rolls. 

The  cracks  thus  developed  in  the  skin  of  the  ingot 
are  closed  up  in  the  later  passes,  but  do  not  always 
weld  together. 

These  defects  thus  developed  may  be  minimized 
by  reducing  the  draft  in  the  earlier  passes,  or  by 
reducing  the  speed  of  the  rolls. 

Rolling  defects  may  also  be  caused  by  the  effect 
of  red-shortness  which  slag  enclosures  produce. 

62 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

Surface  seams  may  also  be  caused  by  the  small 
holes  or  pits  which  occur  on  the  outer  surface  of 
every  ingot,  and  v/hich  are  elongated  into  seams  in 
passing  through  the  rolling  mill. 

Rolling  mill  laps  or  folds  have  been  caused  by  too 
deep  cogging  of  the  rolls,  or  by  a  break  in  the  roll, 
or  by  lack  of  proper  adjustment  of  the  rolls;  and 
by  failure  of  the  mill  to  catch  the  defect  in  time 
to  prevent  some  of  the  rails  being  loaded  and 
shipped. 

Seams  and  laps  may  be  as  harmful  in  their  effects 
as  segregation  and  slag  inclusions. 

An  examination  of  the  Table  on  page  42  will  show 
the  variation  in  rolling  mill  practice.  In  some  mills 
the  draft  is  extremely  light  in  the  first  few  passes, 
while  in  other  mills  the  draft  is  at  first  heavy  but 
the  speed  extremely  slow:  in  the  former  it  is  the 
purpose  to  weld  up  the  skin  of  the  ingot  so  as  to 
prevent  the  development  of  the  defects  above  men- 
tioned; while  in  the  latter  the  idea  is  to  elongate 
the  metal  of  the  ingot  in  the  manner  done  in  wire 
drawing. 

The  passage  through  the  rolls  continuously  par- 
allel with  one  axis  of  the  ingot  and  bloom,  tends 
to  elongate  the  impurities  and  segregated  materials, 
the  blowholes,  the  surface  cracks  and  pits,  in  one 
direction;  so  that  notwithstanding  the  original  crys- 
talline formation  of  the  steel,  the  finished  rail  has 
a  structure  somewhat  similar  to  a  stick  of  wood, 
and  which  is  stronger  with  than  across  the  grain. 
This  condition  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  base 
of  the  rail,  where  the  ductility  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  the  rail  is  much  greater  than  at  right 
angles  thereto,  or  across  the  rail. 
63 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

Article  P.— CAMBERING,  COOLING  AND  COLD- 
STRAIGHTENING. 

All  of  the  care  used  in  the  various  manufacturing 
steps  up  to  this  stage  may  be  wasted,  unless  the 
work  of  cambering,  cooling,  and  cold-straightening 
be  properly  performed. 

The  cambering  machine,  by  which  the  hot  rails 
are  given  the  curvature  necessary  to  compensate  for 
the  unequal  temperature  of  head  and  base,  deserves 
the  most  careful  attention,  otherwise  the  rails  will 
be  badly  out  of  surface  when  cold. 

The  rails  on  the  cooling  beds  must  be  carefully 
protected  against  rain  or  snow,  sudden  changes  of 
temperature,  or  other  unequal  cooling  conditions. 

With  all  the  precautions  that  may  be  taken,  there 
is  a  certain  amount  of  cold-straightening  to  be  done 
on  nearly  every  rail;  but,  given  a  well-designed  rail 
section,  the  rail-maker  can  by  exercise  of  proper 
care  in  manufacture  and  cambering,  greatly  reduce 
the  amount  of  gagging. 

It  would  seem  that  the  present  methods  of 
straightening  should  be  replaced  by  a  method  which 
distributes  the  compressions  of  either  the  head  or 
base,  or  lengthens  either  one  uniformly  per  inch  of 
rail. 

Acting  on  the  suggestion  of  Capt.  Robt.  W.  Hunt, 
a  number  of  railroads  have  this  year  agreed  to 
accept  from  the  manufacturers,  for  experimental 
purposes,  a  small  amount  of  rail  which  has  been 
carefully  cambered  but  not  straightened,  provided 
they  contain  no  short  bends  or  kinks,  and  that  the 
middle  ordinate  of  total  curvature  of  rail  when 
leaving  the  hot  beds  is  not  greater  than  one  inch  in 
any  direction.  It  is  hoped  that  this  will  in  time 
lead  to  elimination  of  cold-straightening  in  No.  1 
rails. 

64 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Manufacture. 

It  is  conceded  that  the  strain  and  torture  that 
rails  have  to  endure  in  cold-straightening  is  a  very 
objectionable  part  of  the  whole  manufacturing  and 
finishing  process. 

It  is  impossible  to  take  a  bend  or  a  kink  out  of 
a  rail  without  straining  it  beyond  its  sectional 
elastic  limit,  and  setting  up  internal  stresses  which 
work  at  cross  purposes  with  the  normally  cold  ten- 
sion of  the  steel.  To  what  extent  these  may  be 
harmful  to  the  rail  after  it  is  put  into  service  can- 
not be  definitely  determined,  but  it  is  only  reason- 
able to  infer  that  they  have  some  effect. 

They  undoubtedly  are,  in  many  cases,  the  cause 
of  external  and  internal  fissures  or  breaks  in  the 
continuity  of  the  rail  structure,  after  the  rail  is 
placed  in  service  develop  into  split  heads,  split  webs, 
and  broken  bases,  and  which  have  been  proved  to 
be  the  source,  in  several  cases,  of  the  dangerous 
failures  known  as  transverse  fissures  hereafter  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  19. 


CAUSES  OF  RAIL  FAILURES. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
DEFECTS  IN  EQUIPMENT  AND  OPERATION. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  service  for  which  a  rail  is  designed  does  not 
require  it  to  be  able  to  withstand  indefinitely,  the 
repeated  powerful  blows  delivered  by  improperly 
counterbalanced  locomotives,  or  broken  and  flat 
wheels,  nor  the  bad  effects  of  slipping  drivers,  ex- 
cessive speeds,  etc. 

There  is  little  excuse  for  operating  with  defective 
equipment,  and  it  must  be  avoided  wherever  pos- 
sible, but  even  with  the  best  supervision,  flat  wheels 
or  unbalanced  locomotives  will  be  found  in  service 
occasionally. 

Unnecessary  punishment  of  the  rail  should  be 
reduced  as  far  as  possible,  and  the  Mechanical  De- 
partments of  the  various  railroad  companies  are 
continually  directing  their  efforts  towards  improv- 
ing the  design  and  the  maintenance  of  locomotives 

Locomotives  now  have  more  driving  wheels  than 
formerly,  to  sub-divide  and  distribute  the  load.  The 
large  freight  locomotives  have  four  and  five  pairs 
of  drivers;  and  instead  of  the  Atlantic  and  Amer- 
ican types,  the  Pacific  type  of  locomotive  with  three 
pairs  of  drivers  is  generally  used  on  heavy  fast 
passenger  trains. 

When  a  railroad  has  in  service,  rail  that  is  ob- 
viously too  light  for  the  character  of  machinery 
operated,  that  rail  is  subjected  to  unreasonable 
stresses,  and  due  consideration  should  be  given  to 
that  fact  in  investigating  cases  of  rail  failure. 

Article  10.— INCORRECT  COUNTERBALANCE. 

There  is  no  lack  of  evidence  to  prove  that  the 
blows  produced  by  improperly  balanced  wheels  are 
66 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Equipment. 

frequent  causes  of  rail  failures.  While  locomotives 
that  may  be  correctly  balanced  for  a  certain  speed 
should  not  be  operated  at  much  higher  speeds,  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  find  them  being  run  at  speeds 
30  per  cent  greater  than  that  for  which  they  were 
designed,  and  this  has  been  permitted  even  in  ex- 
tremely cold  weather. 

The  computations  of  the  centrifugal  and  recip- 
rocating forces  are  usually  based  on  a  speed  in 
miles  per  hour  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  driving 
wheel  in  inches,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  max- 
imum for  good  practice. 

The  railroads  are  devoting  a  great  deal  of  atten- 
tion to  reducing  the  weight  of  reciprocating  parts, 
by  use  of  special  heat-treated  carbon  and  alloy  steel, 
aluminum,  etc.;  thus  making  it  possible  to  construct 
very  light  parts,  the  expense  being  more  than  justi- 
fied by  saving  in  repairs  to  equipment  and  track, 
and  by  increase  in  tractive  power  of  locomotive. 

It  has  been  found  that  by  this  method  the  weight 
of  the  reciprocating  parts  can  be  reduced  to  nearly 
1/240  of  the  total  weight  of  the  locomotive  in  work- 
ing order,  instead  of  the  usual  average  of  1/160. 

With  incorrect  counterbalance,  due  either  to  poor 
design  or  to  excessive  speed,  there  is  a  tremendous 
blow  delivered  to  the  rail  at  every  revolution  of  the 
driving  wheel;  these  blows,  however,  do  not  as  a 
rule  leave  a  mark  on  the  rail.  When  apparently 
sound  rails  break  on  well  maintained  track,  or  in 
cases  where  a  number  of  rails  are  found  broken 
or  damaged  on  one  side  of  the  track  and  at  regu- 
lar intervals  which  are  multiples  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  wheels,  defective  equipment  may  be 
suspected  as  the  cause. 

67 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Equipment  and 
Operation 

Article  11.— EXCESSIVE  SPEED. 

The  competition  among  the  railroads  for  traffic, 
led  them  gradually  into  offers  of  quicker  and  faster 
service,  until  a  point  was  reached  a  few  years  ago 
where  excessively  high  speeds  for  both  passenger 
and  freight  trains  was  the  general  practice. 

In  some  cases  where  track  and  rolling  stock  could 
not  be  maintained  at  a  high  standard,  these  fast 
schedules  had  reached  the  limit  of  safe  operation. 
The  traveler,  the  shipper,  and  the  railroads  were 
equally  to  blame  for  this  condition.  In  recent  years 
the  tendency  has  been  to  reduce  schedule  speeds  and 
hold  them  within  reasonable  limits. 

On  some  railroads  the  schedule  speed  of  the  train 
may  not  be  exceeded,  and  if  a  train  is  delayed  no 
attempt  is  made  to  run  at  high  speeds  in  order  to 
bring  the  train  into  its  terminal  on  time.  The 
management  and  the  trainmen  do  not  always  co- 
operate on  this  feature,  and  on  a  few  railroads 
automatic  registering  speed  recorders  are  placed  in 
the  trains,  which  are  carefully  checked  at  the  end 
of  a  run,  and  in  cases  where  the  permissible  speed 
has  been  exceeded  a  penalty  is  inflicted. 

As  indicated  in  the  preceding  article,  the  prin- 
cipal trouble  caused  by  excessive  speed  is  that 
due  to  counterbalancing,  but  high  speeds  accentuate 
any  slight  defects  in  equipment  or  track,  and  may 
lead  to  failures  that  would  never  occur  when  the 
locomotive  is  run  at  speeds  no  greater  than  the 
maximum  for  which  it  was  designed,  and  which  the 
track  can  safely  carry. 
Article  12— BROKEN  AND  FLAT  WHEELS. 

These  generally  leave  a  mark  on  the  rail,  if  not 
at  the  point  where  the  failure  occurred,  then  up  or 
down  the  track. 

68 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Equipment  and 
Operation. 

Great  damage  must  undoubtedly  be  done  to  rails 
by  repeated  hammering  from  flat  spots  on  wheels. 

Good  railroad  practice  demands  that  new  wheels 
shall  be  circular,  shall  be  set  concentrically  on  the 
axle,  and  that  the  size  of  the  flat  spot  which  is 
allowed  by  the  interchange  rules  shall  be  strictly 
limited. 

Article  13.— SLIPPING  AND  SLIDING  WHEELS. 

These  cause  burnt  rails,  that  is,  the  metal  directly 
in  contact  with  the  wheels  becomes  suddenly  heated 
to  a  high  temperature,  and  cools  quickly,  with  the 
result  that  a  hard  spot  forms  in  the  metal  which 
may  develop  into  complete  failure  of  the  rail.  Slip- 
ping of  drivers  may  be  caused,  either  by  the  engine- 
men,  giving  too  much  steam  causing  drivers  to  spin, 
or  by  an  improper  application  of  the  air  brakes 
locking  the  driving  wheels  or  other  wheels  while 
the  train  is  in  motion,  causing  them  to  slide  along 
the  surface  of  the  rail.  The  latter  does  double 
damage  in  that  it  also  causes  flat  wheels. 

With  the  long  passenger  and  freight  trains  now 
in  use  all  air  equipment  must  be  in  first-class  shape, 
or  no  matter  how  well  it  is  handled  by  the  engine- 
men,  the  brakes  on  one  or  more  cars  may  fail  to 
release,  especially  in  cold  weather. 

Article  14.— WORN  TIRES. 

This  condition  causes  eccentric  loading,  and  over- 
loads the  rail  at  the  edges  of  the  head.  It  is  gen- 
erally admitted  that  wheel  loads  have  about  reached 
the  safe  limit  for  the  present  carbon  steel  rail,  and 
close  attention  is  being  given  to  methods  for  avoid- 
ing increase  in  such  pressures. 

Realizing  therefore  that  present  loads  on  rails 
should  not  be  greatly  increased,  especial  care  should 

69 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Track. 

be  taken  to  see  that  the  tires  of  locomotive  drivers 
are  kept  in  first-class  condition,  and  that  the  max- 
imum limit  of  wear  prescribed  by  the  Master  Me- 
chanics' Association  is  not  exceeded. 

Rails  damaged  by  worn  tires  are  difficult  to  iden- 
tify; a  wheel  with  a  false  flange  may  be  suspected 
as  causing  the  trouble  when  the  outer  corner  of  the 
head  of  the  rail  shows  unusual  marks. 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

DEFECTS  IN  TRACK. 

Good  railroad  track  involves  a  properly  drained 
sub-grade,  ballast,  ties  and  rail  fastenings,  joint 
bars  and  other  joint  material,  and  the  proper  main- 
tenance of  these,  as  well  as  rails. 

It  would  be  manifestly  unfair  to  blame  the  rail 
for  failures  which  may  be  clearly  due  to  defective 
support  or  fastenings. 

When  rail  is  submitted  to  an  abnormal  and  unfair 
usage,  it  may  break,  and  the  fracture  will  occur,  of 
course,  along  the  line  of  least  resistance;  that  is, 
to  say,  if  there  is  a  defect  of  any  kind  in  the  rail, 
it  would  be  developed  by  defective  track  (and  also 
by  defective  equipment)  when  it  might  not  be  de- 
veloped under  usual  service  stresses. 

Many  failed  rails  show  no  apparent  interior  de- 
fect, and  manufacturers  argue  from  this  that  the 
only  remedy  is  to  use  heavier  sections. 

It  is  entirely  probable  that  a  great  deal  of  rail 
is  subjected  to  unreasonable  treatment.  There  is 
likewise  no  doubt  that  it  is  entirely  reasonable  to 
require  manufacturers  to  remedy  defective  prac- 
tices in  the  mill,  and  to  use  such  attention  and  care 
in  the  production  of  rail  as  the  service  to  which  it 
is  put,  and  the  safety  of  the  traveller,  demands. 

70 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Track. 

The  following  track  defects  may  hasten  the  wear, 
or  even  the  breakage  of  unsound  rails,  and  some  of 
them  may  even  cause  the  failure  of  sound  rails; 

Low  joints, 

Loose  or  improperly  bolted  joint  bars, 

Unequal  bearing  produced  by  frozen  roadbed,  or 

poor  shimming, 
Unequal  freezing  of  roadbed — thawing  on  south 

side  of  single  track  and  on  outside  of  double 

track, 

Inferior  subgrade, 
Improper    elevation    and    improper    gauge    on 

curves, 
Wide  gauge, 

Defective  tie  plates  or  improper  bearing  thereon, 
Unequal  tie  spacing, 
Insufficient  drainage  of  roadbed, 
Blows  from  spike  maul  oft  rail, 
Injuries  by  trackshifting  machines,  etc., 
Injuries  in  unloading  and  handling, 
Reversing    curvature,    or    strains,    in    relaying 

rail. 

The  great  enemy  of  the  trackman  is  water — if 
more  study  had  been  given  to  the  problem  of  keep- 
ing water  out  of  the  subgrade  fewer  rail  failures 
would  have  characterized  the  past. 

The  subgrade  is  the  foundation,  and  no  amount 
of  money  spent  on  rails,  ties,  joint  bars  and  ballast 
will  give  successful  results  on  an  inferior  subgrade. 

Careful  records  on  a  certain  operating  district 
show  that  on  one  portion  of  the  district  where  the 
subgrade  is  sandy,  porous  and  well  drained,  the  rail 
failures  were  but  two-fifths  of  the  number  occur- 
ring on  another  portion  of  the  district  where  the 
subgrade  is  a  kind  of  clay  that  holds  water. 

71 


Causes  of  Rail  Failures — Defects  in  Track. 

It  is  only  infrequently  that  one  reason  tells  the 
whole  story.  The  blanks  provided  for  reporting 
failures  aim  to  get  as  much  information  as  possible 
concerning  the  conditions  surrounding  the  failure, 
and  the  blanks  should  be  carefully  studied,  carefully 
filled  out,  and  the  diagrams  carefully  marked. 


72 


PART  V 

KINDS  OF  RAIL  FAILURES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  logical  classification  of  rail  failures  seems 
to  be  one  that  places  them  under  headings  that  are 
descriptive  of  the  manner  in  which  the  failure  gen- 
erally develops  or  occurs  in  service.  They  may 
therefore  be  divided  into  three  general  classes: 

1.  Head  failures. 

2.  Base  failures. 

3.  Broken  rails. 

As  a  general  rule  a  failure  in  any  one  of  the 
first  two  classes  will,  sooner  or  later,  if  the  rail  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  service,  lead  to  a  failure  in 
Class  3,  and  care  should  be  taken  in  reporting 
failures  in  Class  3,  to  be  certain  that  a  failure  in 
Class  1  or  2  did  not  first  occur.  The  proportion 
of  failures  in  Class  3  which  were  not  preceded  by 
a  failure  in  one  of  the  other  classes  is  small. 

Pure  web  failures  are  of  infrequent  occurrence, 
but  do  occur  occasionally. 

Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish 
between  failures  occurring  at  the  joints,  from  those 
occurring  in  portion  of  the  rail  outside  the  joint 
bars.  If  after  a  few  years  service  a  rail  fails  at 
the  joint  while  the  balance  of  the  rail  is  in  good 
condition,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  failure  is  not 
primarily  due  to  defects  in  the  rail  itself.  Such 
failures  must  be  covered  by  the  usual  reports,  but 
the  reports  should  show  clearly,  as  provided,  that 
the  failures  occurred  at  the  joint. 

Similarly,  in  reporting  failures  of  rails  on  curves, 
care  must  be  taken  to  show  if  the  head  of  the  rail 
has  been  abraded  to  an  appreciable  extent.  Manu- 

75 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

facturers  claim  that  as  soon  as  a  rail  has  received 
any  appreciable  amount  of  wear,  the  surface  metal 
is  strained,  while  the  metal  beneath  is  undisturbed. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  a  distinct  classification  of 
some  failures  and  assign  true  cause  or  origin. 

In  fractures  of  granular  structures,  the  point  of 
origin  of  the  fracture  is  usually  easily  detected  by 
a  well-defined  nucelus,  from  which  a  fan-like  or 
radiant  structure  diverges.  With  this  in  mind,  a 
careful  examination  of  the  fractured  surfaces  of  a 
broken  rail  will  enable  the  trackman  to  show  in  his 
report  whether  the  failure  originated  in  head  or 
base. 

It  is  no  doubt  generally  understood,  that  the 
term  rail  failure  is  not  limited  to  those  rails  in 
which  a  partial  break,  or  a  break  clear  across  the 
section,  has  occurred.  Any  condition  of  the  rail, 
which  requires  its  removal  from  service  before  the 
end  of  its  usual  life  in  such  service,  and  under  the 
local  conditions,  should  be  reported  as  a  rail  failure. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Article  15.— CRUSHED  HEAD 

In  this  type  of  failure  the  head  flattens  and 
broadens  out,  begins  to  sag  down  on  one  or  perhaps 
both  sides,  and  if  allowed  to  remain  in  service  the 
head  finally  splits  and  drops  down. 

This  type  first  shows  itself  to  the  trackman  by 
the  development  of  a  dark  streak  along  the  top  of 
the  head,  indicating  that  a  portion  of  the  metal  is 
depressed  and  is  not  receiving  the  usual  brightening 
from  the  wheels.  It  usually  develops  very  slowly, 
and  should  be  readily  detected  in  its  earlier  stages. 

Crushed  head  failures  may  be  caused  by  unsound 
and  segregated  metal,  blowholes  or  gas  seams;  and 
often,  flat  wheels,  or  slipping  driving  wheels,  may 

76 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

contribute  to  these  failures.  With  segregated  metal, 
the  crack  develops  in  the  interior  of  the  head,  where 
the  metal  is  less  ductile  than  on  the  surface  and 
ruptures  under  the  wheel  loads.  Slag  inclusions 
or  other  impurities  often  form  the  nucleus  for  a 
split  in  the  head. 

Manufacturers  claim  that  intense  localized  wheel 
pressure  will  sometimes  cause  such  failures  even  in 
a  perfectly  sound  rail. 

When  this  type  of  failure  occurs  at  the  rail  joint, 
the  report  should  so  indicate,  as  the  failure  may 
not  be  due  to  defective  rail  but  to  defective  joint. 
Even  with  perfect  rails,  perfect  joint  bars,  and  per- 
fect support,  depressions  may  be  worn  near  the  end 
of  the  rail.  This  is  due  entirely  to  the  fact  that  at 
a  joint  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  wheels  to  jump 
from  one  rail  to  the  other,  thus  battering  the  rail 
as  well  as  tending  to  cause  loose  joint  bars,  bolts, 
and  ties. 
Article  16.— SPLIT  HEAD. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  clearly  be- 
tween split  heads  and  crushed  heads ;  with  true  split 
head  failures  the  crushing  and  flattening  of  the  head 
does  not  usually  appear,  but  a  piece  of  the  head  from 
a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet  in  length  splits  off  and 
drops  down. 

This  type  of  failure  is  confined,  almost  entirely, 
to  metal  showing  considerable  segregation  and  at- 
tended more  or  less  with  laminations  and  slag  seams. 

Under  certain  conditions  of  track  the  action  of  the 
wheels  tends  to  press  the  metal  in  the  head  of  the 
rail  outwards.  The  metal  in  the  outer  surface  of 
the  rail  is  usually  ductile  enough  to  stand  this  action 
without  cracking,  but  if  the  interior  metal  is  un- 
sound a  crack  will  be  started,  which  gradually  de- 
velops until  it  results  in  a  split  head. 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

Split  heads  have  also  been  caused  by  a  blow  from 
the  sharp  edge  of  a  defective  wheel,  which  may  cut 
the  surface  metal,  and  the  final  fracture  not  occur 
until  later. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  present  wheel-coning  loads 
the  rail  eccentrically,  and  by  giving  insufficient  con- 
tact for  present  wheel  loads,  tends  to  split  the  head 
and  web. 

Article  17.— FLOW  OF  METAL. 

In  this  type  of  failure  the  metal  on  the  top  of  the 
head  flows  out  to  the  sides  and  forms  an  overhang- 
ing lip,  but  without  any  indication  of  the  breaking 
down  of  the  head  structure. 

This  type  cannot  be  classed  as  a  dangerous  fail- 
ure in  itself,  but  in  some  forms  it  may  offer  a  start- 
ing point  for  splits  or  breaks. 

It  may  appear  in  several  forms,  from  small  spots 
to  large  ones  covering  the  greater  portion  of  the 
length  of  the  rail. 

In  some  cases  the  metal  sloughs  off  in  several 
spots,  causing  what  are  sometimes  called  roaring 
rails,  but  may  be  properly  defined  as  flowed  in  spots. 

Flowed  in  spots  may  be  caused  by  slipping  drivers 
and  sliding  wheels,  which  produce  a  thin  sheet  of 
brittle  steel  at  the  spot  where  the  friction  occurred, 
and  this  soon  breaks  away  from  the  metal  beneath. 

Flow  of  Metal  may  be  caused  by  blowholes,  gas 
seams,  or  other  unsoundness  near  the  surface  or  cor- 
ners of  the  head.  Improper  heat  treatment,  such  as 
will  cause  coarse  grain,  is  another  cause. 

Shelly  corners  produce  a  condition  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  flow  of  metal,  but  these  are  evidently  due  to 
unsound  structure. 

78 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

Flowage  at  the  ends  of  rails  may  be  due  to  de- 
fective joints  or  to  inferior  joint  maintenance. 

Stock  rails  at  switches  afford  examples  of  the 
effect  of  natural  service  conditions  in  regard  to  this 
type  of  failure,  where  the  false  flange  of  the  wheels 
rides  on  the  top  of  the  head  of  the  rail. 

Rails  which  show  even  flowage  for  their  entire 
length,  such  as  the  inside  rail  on  curves,  should  not, 
except  in  special  cases,  be  classed  as  failed  rails,  as 
this  is  a  form  of  abrasion  which  cannot  well  be 
avoided  where  all  kinds  of  traffic  are  operated  over 
the  track. 

Article  18.— ABRASION. 

Under  certain  conditions  of  curvature  and  speed 
variation  for  different  kinds  of  traffic,  the  head  of 
the  rail  is  abraded  more  or  less  rapidly,  by  the  wheel 
tread  in  the  case  of  the  low  rail,  and  the  wheel 
flange  in  the  case  of  the  high  rail. 

This  condition,  while  not  classed  as  failure  of  the 
rail,  reduces  the  life  of  the  rail  so  materially  that 
experiments  are  being  carried  on  by  the  railroads 
with  a  view  of  overcoming  the  trouble. 

These  experiments  indicate  that  rails  of  special 
alloy  steel,  or  of  special  section,  may  overcome  the 
difficulty  to  a  certain  extent,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
determined  which  will  prove  most  economical. 

During  the  past  there  has  been  a  tendency  on 
the  part  of  a  great  many  railroads  towards  too  great 
a  widening  of  the  gage  on  curves ;  this  leads  to  exces- 
sive abrasion  of  the  rail  and  lashing  of  the  locomo- 
tive, especially  at  high  speed.  A  great  many  of  the 
leading  railroads  are  now  maintaining  standard 
gage  on  curves  of  to  7  to  9  degrees  with  very  satis- 
factory results. 

70 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

WEB  FAILURES  AND  PIPED  RAILS. 
Article  19.— SPLIT  WEB. 

Failures  of  this  type  are  not  numerous.  Ordinar- 
ily the  web  splits  horizontally,  usually  at  the  end  of 
the  rail  through  the  bolt  holes.  They  may  be  caused 
by  loose  bolts,  or  by  imperfect  alignment  of  bolt 
holes  in  drilling  at  the  mill.  These  end  failures  may 
also  be  caused  by  careless  handling  in  loading  or 
unloading  in  cases  where  rail  is  shipped  by  boat. 

Web  failures  also  occur  at  intermediate  points  of 
the  rail;  this  type  may  be  caused  by  rolling  seams 
or  laps,  chilling  by  water  in  the  course  of  rolling, 
initial  stresses  in  cooling  and  excessive  alternating 
bending  either  at  the  straightening  press  or  in  serv- 
ice, and  some  have  even  been  causd  by  blows  of  the 
spike  maul. 

Article  20.— PIPED  RAILS. 

As  a  rule  these  defective  rails  fail  completely  and 
suddenly,  without  previous  warning,  and  are  there- 
fore especially  dangerous.  While  they  are  properly 
classed  as  broken  rails  (discussed  in  the  following 
chapter),  the  cause  of  failure  is  due  to  defect  in  the 
web,  and  they  are  therefore  placed  in  this  chapter. 

Piped  rails  are  those  in  which  the  sides  of  the 
original  shrinkage  cavity  (called  the  pipe)  in  the  in- 
gots, are  found  closely  pressed  together  in  the  rail, 
but  not  welded  together.  The  pipe  is  very  distinct, 
and  as  it  occurs  in  the  center  of  the  ingot,  so  we 
should  expect  to  find  it  in  the  center  of  the  web  of 
the  finished  rail,  and  not  in  either  the  head  or  base. 
With  some  sections  of  rail,  which  have  a  preponder- 
ance of  metal  in  the  head,  the  pipe  may  extend  up 
into  the  head. 

80 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

If  an  ingot  be  laid  on  its  side  after  casting,  and 
allowed  to  cool  in  that  position,  the  pipe  will  be  near 
the  upper  surface,  and  may  then  appear  in  portioni 
of  the  rail  other  than  the  web. 

In  some  few  cases  a  split  head  has  been  found 
running  into  a  pipe  in  the  web,  but  these  cases  are 
rare. 

If  split  head  fractures  can  be  examined  while 
new,  the  condition  of  the  fractured  surfaces  will  in- 
dicate if  a  pipe  be  present,  as  in  that  case  the  walla 
of  the  fracture  will  be  smooth.  This  can  also  be 
detected  in  nearly  all  cases  of  old  breaks. 

Piped  rails  are  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  mill 
to  crop  the  blooms  down  to  sound  steel,  thus  insur- 
ing the  complete  elimination  of  the  cavity  existing 
in  the  ingot. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

BASE  FAILURES. 

The  well  known  crescent  or  half-moon  failures 
usually  start  near  the  center  of  base  of  rail  and 
continue  along  it,  sometimes  a  fraction  of  an  inch, 
some  times  as  much  as  four  or  five  feet,  and  then 
break  out  to  the  edge  of  the  base  in  a  crescent- 
shaped  curve.  Sometimes  one  side  only  of  the  base 
breaks,  and  rails  have  been  known  to  do  service  for 
some  time  in  this  condition;  generally,  however,  the 
rail  breaks  through  the  other  side  of  the  base,  the 
web,  and  the  head,  immediately  after  the  first  break 
occurs. 

It  is  claimed  that  this  type  of  failure  is,  in  most 
cases,  due  to  seams  in  the  base  of  the  rail.  These 
seams  may  occur  at  any  point  across  the  full  width 
of  the  base,  but  seams  near  the  center  of  the  base 
are  more  dangerous  than  those  near  the  edge.  The 

81 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

seams  may  vary  in  depth  from  1/32  to  1/8  inch,  and 
extend  along  the  base  of  the  rail  from  a  fraction  of 
an  inch  to  several  feet. 

In  a  fresh  break  it  is  generally  possible  to  distin- 
guish the  seam  at  which  the  fracture  started,  as  a 
smooth  face  showing  a  bluish  surface,  or  corroded 
and  rusty  if  the  seam  has  been  open. 

These  seams  are  usually  caused  by  cracks  or  blow- 
holes formed  or  opened  in  the  early  passes  in  rolling 
the  ingot,  especially  on  the  two  sides  which  are  not 
in  contact  with  the  rolls;  these  are  elongated  in 
subsequent  passes  in  the  rolling  mill.  They  may  be 
found  all  over  the  rail,  and  are  frequently  very 
minute. 

In  all  cases  of  broken  rails  the  base  should  be 
carefully  examined  for  signs  of  the  crescent-shaped 
breaks,  and  for  seams  that  caused  them,  in  order  to 
ascertain  if  the  ultimate  failure  of  the  rail  was  not 
preceded  by  the  failure  of  the  base.  One  or  two 
blows  of  a  hammer  will  break  out  a  crescent  where 
the  rail  has  base  seams;  without  seams  present  the 
flange  should  bend  but  not  split. 

These  failures  are  aggravated  by  cold  weather, 
frozen  roadbed  with  unequal  bearing,  poor  shimming, 
and  other  defects  in  maintenance;  but  even  under 
these  conditions,  failure  would  not  ordinarily  occur 
without  the  presence  of  seams. 

Distinction  should  be  made  between  the  seams  re- 
ferred to  above  and  those  produced  in  the  process 
of  rolling  all  rails,  which,  as  shown  on  page  63, 
tends  by  elongating  the  impurities,  to  give  the 
whole  rail  a  fibrous  or  seamy  structure.  Such 
seams  are  very  minute,  but  are  easily  made  apparent 
by  polishing  and  etching  the  bottom  of  the  rail,  when 
the  seams  appear  as  black  lines  on  the  surface.  The 
base  of  rails,  where  such  seams  are  present,  has  less 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

transverse  than  longitudinal  ductility,  and  with  de- 
fects in  track,  may  lead  to  broken  bases  that  would 
not  break  where  track  conditions  are  good. 

Broken  base  failures  were  frequent  in  rails  with 
thin  bases,  and  the  A.  R.  A.  sections  were  partly  de- 
signed to  overcome  this  trouble. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

BROKEN  RAILS. 

Rail  breakages  are  of  two  distinct  classes,  consist- 
ing of  those  of  rails  which  are  sound  when  put  in 
track,  and  those  of  rails  which  have  inherent  defects. 

The  latter  are  more  dangerous  than  the  former, 
because  in  a  sound  rail  the  break  is  pretty  sure  to  be 
a  clean  one,  and  the  rail  will  ordinarily  be  held  se- 
curely in  place  by  the  track  fastenings  until  found 
and  removed  by  the  section  forces;  whereas,  a  de- 
fective rail  will  frequently  shatter  into  several 
pieces,  giving  rise  to  serious  danger  of  accident. 

For  the  breakages  of  defective  rails  the  rail  mak- 
ers must  be  held  chiefly  responsible — the  remedy  is 
better  methods  of  manufacture. 

For  the  breakages  of  sound  rails  by  defective 
equipment  or  defective  maintenance  the  railroads 
must  and  do  accept  full  responsibility — the  remedy  is 
proper  maintenance,  and  constant  vigilance  to  re- 
move defective  equipment  from  service,  and  to  prop- 
erly regulate  the  speed  of  trains,  especially  in  cold 
weather. 

All  rails  which  break  in  two  or  more  pieces  are 
placed  in  this  class.  However,  as  has  been  stated, 
there  may  have  first  been  a  failure  in  head,  web,  or 
base,  which  was  the  primary  cause  of  total  failure  of 
the  rail.  Therefore,  careful  examination  of  all  the 
fractured  surfaces  should  be  made,  both  for  the  pur- 

83 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

pose  of  ascertaining  if  partial  failure  of  portions  of 
the  rail  probably  occurred  before  total  failure  took 
place,  as  well  as  to  see  if  the  total  failure  apparently 
took  place  all  at  once,  and  whether  or  not  any  inter- 
nal defects  were  present. 

Broken  rails  are  generally  accompanied  by  brittle- 
ness  and  segregation;  the  former  may  be  caused  by 
too  large  a  quantity  of  the  hardening  elements,  or 
by  improper  heat  treatment  during  manufacture. 

The  break  may  be  square  or  angular  and  may  be 
caused 

1.  By  partial  failure  first  occurring  in  head, 
web,  or  base,  followed  by  total  failure. 

2.  By  pipes,  seams,  segregation  or  other  in- 
ternal defects. 

3.  By  defective  equipment  or  improper  oper- 
ation thereof. 

4.  By  inferior  maintenance. 

5.  By  cold  weather  and  frozen  roadbed. 

6.  By  careless  handling. 

7.  By  transverse  fissures. 

The  first  four  items  have  been  discussed  in  pre- 
vious chapters. 

5.  The  difference  between  the  number  of  failures 
during  warm  weather,  compared  with  the  number  of 
failures  in  cold  weather  is  very  marked. 

Statistics  of  some  railroads  show  that  under  simi- 
lar conditions  the  failures  in  severe  cold  weather  will 
run  from  three  to  five  times  as  many  as  in  warm 
weather,  for  the  same  weight  and  section  of  rail. 

6.  Under  failures  due  to  rough  handling  the  ini- 
tial fracture  may  occur  at  the  mill  at  straightening 
presses  or  in  loading  into  high  side  cars  and  letting 
fall  upon  other  rails  five  feet  or  more  below,  or  in 
letting  the  rails  fall  in  unloading  six  or  seven  feet 
upon  the  ground. 

84 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

A  fracture  of  this  type  is  characteristic;  it  begins 
generally  across  the  base  and  extends  a  short  dis- 
tance up  into  the  web,  then  it  works  along  the  web, 
sometimes  for  a  distance  of  several  feet,  with  the 
face  of  the  fracture  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  a 
vertical  line  down  through  the  rail,  and  finally 
breaks  up  through  the  head. 

Some  approved  device  should  be  used  for  unloading 
rails  from  box  cars  or  gondolas,  and  in  unloading 
from  flat  cars  both  ends  should  be  dropped  at  once, 
and  dropping  on  hard  or  uneven  ground  avoided. 

Nearly  all  the  rail  mills  have  installed  electric 
magnet  cranes,  and  have  thus  eliminated  practically 
all  failures  due  to  careless  loading  at  the  mill. 

7.  Failures  caused  by  transverse  fissures  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  chapter. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

TRANSVERSE  FISSURES. 

This  is  a  type  of  failure  which  has  received  a 
great  deal  of  attention  in  the  last  four  or  five  years, 
particular  attention  having  been  drawn  to  it  on  ac- 
count of  several  disastrous  train  wrecks  caused  by 
broken  rails  which  were  found  to  contain  transverse 
fissures. 

Few  fissures  have  been  found  in  rails  rolled  prior 
to  1909. 

The  name  transverse  fissure  is  given  to  a  frac- 
tured rail  section  that  shows  smooth,  dark  or  silvery 
spots  on  the  fractured  surface,  while  the  rest  of  the 
metal  shows  the  usual  crystalline  structure. 

The  transverse  fissure  is  found  on  the  fractured 
surface,  usually  without  any  connection  with  the  out- 
side skin  of  the  rail,  indicating  that  it  is  an  internal 
fissure. 

85 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

If  moisture  gets  into  the  break  before  total  failure 
of  the  rail,  or  in  some  cases  of  oxidation  during 
manufacture,  these  spots  are  found  darkened,  but  in 
many  cases  they  are  found  to  be  bright  and  silvery. 

Photographs  are  shown  of  several  different  fis- 
sures which  have  been  found  in  rails  that  failed  in 
service,  and  from  which  the  trackman  can  get  a 
good  idea  of  the  form  in  which  these  failures  usually 
appear. 

Very  few  fissures  have  been  found  in  the  base  of 
the  rail,  most  of  them  occurring  in  the  head,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  photographs. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  plane  of  the 
fissure  is  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  rail, 
but  a  few  cases  have  been  found  in  which  the  upper 
part  of  the  fissure  bends  backwards  and  runs  parallel 
with  the  length  of  the  rail  and  about  half  an  inch 
below  the  top  of  the  head. 

On  account  of  the  fissure  being  internal,  and  that 
as  soon  as  it  works  out  nearly  to  the  outer  surface 
of  the  rail,  failure  occurs,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
trackman  to  foresee  the  failure,  and  remove  the  rail 
before  it  breaks. 

Failures  of  this  character  are  therefore  the  most 
dangerous  type  of  failure  with  which  the  trackman 
has  to  contend. 

Fortunately  they  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  some 
railroads  claim  that  notwithstanding  careful  watch 
no  failures  of  this  type  have  ever  been  found  on 
their  lines. 

Trackmen  should  keep  a  close  watch  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  fissures  on  the  fractured  surfaces  of  any 
rail  that  breaks;  when  any  are  found  draw  special 
attention  thereto  on  their  rail  failure  reports,  and 
be  especially  careful  to  see  that  all  parts  of  the  rail 
in  which  they  appear  are  preserved  until  instructions 
as  to  their  disposition  have  been  received. 

86 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 


Fig.   3. 


Fig.  4. 


87 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

While  the  United  States  Government  Bureau,  the 
rail  manufacturers,  and  the  railroads,  have  all  been 
carrying  on  careful  investigations,  they  have  not  yet 
agreed  upon  a  theory  as  to  the  cause  of  transverse 
fissures;  all,  however,  are  agreed  upon  two  points: 

1.  That  the  fissure  starts  from  a  point  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  rail  where  the  continuity  of  the  struc- 
ture has  been  broken,  and 

2.  The  fissure  keeps  spreading  from  this  break, 
under  repeated  alternations  of  stress,  until  failure 
finally  results. 

The  manufacturers  claim 

that  the  primary  break  has  been  caused  either 

by  overloading  in  service,  or  by  the  repeated  alter- 
nating bending  stresses  produced  by  hundreds 
of  passing  wheels;  while 

The  railroads  claim 

that  the  primary  break  has  been  caused  by  de- 
fective manufacturing  processes. 

The  following  theories  of  the  primary  cause  of 
transverse  fissures  have  been  advanced : 

(a)  Fissures  start  from  the  breaking  of  an 
overstrained  fibre,  caused  by  a  combination  of 
internal  strains  due  to  cooling  and  the  strains 
produced  by  heavy  wheel  loads ; 

(b)  Fissures  are  caused  by  unequal  cooling 
strains  requiring  subsequent  excessive  gagging 
to  straighten  the  rail,  especially  near  its  ends ; 

(c)  Fissures  are  caused  by  rolling  practices 
•    which   give  incomplete   transformations   in   the 

metal ; 

(d)  Fissures  are  caused  by  finishing  high  car- 
bon rails  at  too  low  a  temperature; 

(e)  Fissures  start  from  some  internal  defect, 
such  as  slag  inclusion  or  a  segregation  spot; 

(f )  Fissures  start  from  minute  cracks  which 
do  not  weld  up  in  the  head  during  rolling,  but 
do  weld  up  in  the  base ; 

(g)  Fissures   are  the   direct  result  of  over- 
loading, combined  with  alternate  repeated  bend- 
ing stresses  and  intense  wheel  contact  stresses; 

(h)    Fissures    are    caused    by    alternate    re- 
peated bending  stresses  of  ordinary  wheel  loads. 

88 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.   6. 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

Experiments  show  that  metals  subjected  to  rapid- 
ly alternating  stresses,  will  ultimately  break  under 
a  load  within  the  elastic  limit,  and  that  the  relation 
of  elastic  limit  to  ultimate  strength  is  materially  af- 
fected by  cold  rolling. 

After  the  primary  break  of  an  internal  fibre  has 
occurred,  it  is  admitted  by  all  that  the  repeated  al- 
ternating bending  stresses  produced  by  passing 
wheels,  will  develop  the  fissure  until  total  failure  of 
the  rail  takes  place;  any  unusually  severe  strain, 
such  as  in  the  gagging  press  or  caused  by  defective 
counterbalance,  etc.,  will  much  hasten  the  develop- 
ment. 

To  illustrate  the  difficulty  of  having  any  of  the 
foregoing  theories  accepted  unanimously  the  follow- 
ing points  may  be  noted: 

1.  Dr.  Dudley  (N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R.)  finds  gag 
marks  in  the  vicinity  of  all  his  fissures,  92  per  cent 
of  the  fissures  being  within  3^  feet  of  ends  of  rail. 

2.  Numerous  fissures  have  been  found  only  two 
inches  apart,  and  as  many  as  twelve  have  been  found 
in  one  33-foot  rail,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  believe 
that  they  could  all  have  been  caused  by  gagging. 

3.  Mr.    Jas.    E.    Howard    (Interstate    Commerce 
Commission)   states  that  all  the  fissures  he  has  seen 
have  been  located  in  the  gage  side  of  the  head  of  the 
rail,  whereas  Dr.  Dudley  finds  13  per  cent  of  all  the 
fissures  found  on  his  lines  were  in  the  outer  half  of 
the  rail  head;  Dr.  Dudley  further  states  that  the  rea- 
son these  fissures  usually  develop  on  the  gage  side 
of  the  head  is,  with   the   present   coning  of  wheel 
treads  of  1  in  38  more  of  the  load  comes  on  that 
side  of  the  head,  whereas  with  the  former  coning  of 
1  in  20  more  of  the  load  came  over  the  center  of  the 
head. 

90 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 


Kinds  of  Rail  Failures. 

4.  Mr.  A.  W.  Thompson  (B.  &  O.  R.  R.)  says,  if 
bad  straightening  practice  is  alone  to  blame  why  are 
not  more  fissures  found  in  Bessemer  rails,  and  why 
were  there  but  rare  instances  of  fissures  in  any  rail 
prior  to  1909? 

5.  Mr.   Howard   says,   again,  that  fissures  have 
never  been  found  in  structural  steel,  nor  in  rails  that 
have  never  been  in  service,  whereas  Dr.  J.  S.  Unger 
(Carnegie  Steel  Co.)  has  produced  in  the  laboratory 
true  transverse  fissures  in  structural  and  medium 
carbon,  as  well  as  in  high  carbon  steel,  also  in  new 
rails  that  have  never  been  in  service. 

6.  No  method  has  yet  been  discovered,  whereby 
an  examination  of  the  interior  of  the  section  can  be 
made  prior  to  the  development  of  the  fissure  in  the 
laboratory,  to  see  if  the  structure  was  sound  before 
the  experiment  was  started.    The  laboratory  experi- 
ments show  that  the  fissure  can  be  produced  at  any 
desired  point  in  head  or  base  of  rail. 

7.  As  proof  of  the  cause  being  in  the  manufac- 
turing process,  it  has  been  found,  that  whereas  the 
rails  from  a  certain  heat  will  under  certain  condi- 
tions develop  transverse  fissures,  adjoining  rails  of 
the  same  section  and  under  exactly  similar  conditions 
show  no  signs  of  transverse  fissures.   Mr.  Robert  Job 
(L.  V.  R.  R.)   removed  rails  from  track  upon  both 
sides  of  and  adjoining  various  failed  rails  of  same 
section  found  to  contain  transverse  fissures;  the  rails 
thus  removed  were  subjected  to  the  drop  test  with- 
out finding  a  single  indication  of  transverse  fissures. 
He  claims  that  this  proves  that  neither  track  nor 
traffic  conditions  were  the  primary  cause  of  the  fis- 
sure, and  that  consequently  the  rails  that  failed  in 
service,  must  have  contained  manufacturing  defects 
which  so  weakened  their  power  of  resistance,  that 
they    were    overloaded    by    ordinary    weights    and 
stresses  which  exerted  no  injurious  effect  upon  rails 
in  which  the  steel  was  properly  made  and  sound. 

92 


PART  VI 

SPECIFICATIONS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Part  VI  contains  the  Specifications  for  the  Manu- 
facture of  Carbon  Steel  Rails,  recommended  by  the 
American  Railway  Engineering  Association  in  1915. 

Each  manufacturer  naturally  prefers  to  make 
rails  under  his  own  specifications,  but  the  railroad 
companies  feel  that,  in  drawing  up  his  specifications, 
the  question  of  quantity  (as  well  as  quality)  is  liable 
to  be  given  more  weight  by  the  manufacturer  than 
is  desirable. 

Most  of  the  Manufacturers'  Specifications  conform 
to  nearly  all  of  the  requirements  of  the  A.  R.  E.  A. 
Specifications,  but  there  are  a  few  clauses  in  the  lat- 
ter which  the  Manufacturers  have  not  yet  been  will- 
ing to  accept  without  the  payment  by  the  Railroad 
Company  of  an  extra  amount  in  addition  to  the  reg- 
ular market  price. 

To  attempt  to  include  in  this  pamphlet  all  the  va- 
rious specifications  extant,  would  serve  no  good  pur- 
pose, but  it  will  be  interesting  for  the  employes  of 
any  railroad  company  to  compare  the  specifications 
under  which  their  rail  is  being  manufactured,  with 
the  specifications  given  herein,  and  see  in  what  im- 
portant points  they  differ. 

The  Specifications  for  Open  Hearth  Carbon  Steel 
Rails  are  shown  herein  separately  from  those  for 
Bessemer  Carbon  Steel  Rails,  as  this  makes  for  con- 
venience in  comparing  and  checking. 

As  the  use  of  Open  Hearth  Steel  is  becoming  more 
and  more  general,  the  specifications  for  that  steel 
are  given  in  full,  whereas  in  the  Bessemer  Steel 
Specifications,  those  articles  which  are  the  same  in 
both  specifications  are  only  referred  to  by  number 


Specifications. 

of  the  corresponding  article  in  the  Open  Hearth  Spe- 
cifications. 

Each  ingot  must  be  considered  as  an  individual 
or  separate  casting,  and  because  one  is  sound  is  no 
proof  that  the  others  are  also.  One  ingot  may  be  a 
perfect  casting,  and  the  next  one  poured  (of  the  same 
heat)  may  contain  a  deep  pipe  or  large  amount  of 
segregation.  Recent  specifications  recognize  this 
fact  and  require  a  test  on  every  ingot. 

It  is  thought  that  these  specifications  are  still  not 
as  strong  as  they  should  be  on  one  point,  that  is, 
the  test  for  chemical  composition  to  show  if  much 
segregation  is  present  in  the  finished  rail,  or  if  the 
chemical  composition  conforms  to  the  specifications. 
Article  6  of  the  specifications  provides  for  this  test 
being  made  on  a  sample  of  hot  metal  taken  from  the 
ladle,  whereas  experience  has  shown  that  the  chemis- 
try of  the  finished  rail  may  differ  considerably  from 
that  found  in  the  ladle. 

With  a  view  of  overcoming  these  weak  spots  in  the 
specifications  two  methods  have  been  developed. 
In  one  method  a  chemical  survey,  and  in  the  other 
an  ocular  inspection  of  the  fractured  surfaces,  is 
made.  Modifications  of  the  A.  R.  E.  A.  specifications 
to  cover  the  former  method  are  shown  on  page  111, 
and  for  the  latter  method  on  page  109. 

Contracts  have  been  let  for  rollings  under  both 
methods  and  the  results  will  be  watched  with  great 
interest. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

AMERICAN    RAILWAY   ENGINEERING   ASSO- 
CIATION. 

1915  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  OPEN  HEARTH 
STEEL  RAILS. 

1.  Inspectors    representing   the   purchaser   shall 
have  free  entry  to  the  works  of  the  manufacturer  at 
all  times  while  the  contract  is  being  executed,  and 
shall  have  all  reasonable  facilities  afforded  them  by 
the  manufacturer  to  satisfy  them  that  the  rails  have 
been  made  and  loaded  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  specifications. 

2.  All  tests  and  inspections  shall  be  made  at  the 
place  of  manufacture,  prior  to  shipment,  and  shall 
be  so  conducted  as  not  to  interfere  unnecessarily 
with  the  operation  of  the  mill. 

3.  The  material  shall  be  steel  made  by  the  Open 
Hearth  process,  as  provided  by  the  contract. 

4.  The  chemical  composition  of  each  heat  of  the 
steel  from  which  the  rails  are  rolled,  determined  as 
prescribed  in  Section  6,  shall  be  within  the  following 
limits : 

Per  Cent. 

70  Lbs.  and 

over,  but  un-      85-100  Lbs., 
Elements —  der  85  Lbs.          inclusive 


Carbon   0.53  to  0.66  0.62  to  0.75 

Phosphorus,  not  to  exceed.              0.04  0.04 

Manganese   0.60  to  0.90  0.60  to  0.90 

Silicon,  not  less  than 0.10  0.10 

When  other  acceptable  deoxidizing  agents  are 
used,  the  minimum  limit  for  Silicon  will  be  omitted. 

5.  It  is  desired  that  the  percentage  of  carbon  in 
an  entire  order  of  rails  shall  average  as  high  as  the 
mean  percentage  between  the  upper  and  lower  limits 
specified. 

97 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

6.  In  order  to   ascertain  whether   the   chemical 
composition  is  in  accordance  with  the  requirements, 
analyses  shall  be  furnished  as  follows: 

(a)    See  Bessemer  specifications,  page  105. 

(b)  The  makers  shall  furnish  the  inspectors 
with  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  elements,  carbon, 
manganese,  silicon,  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  for 
each  heat. 

(c)  On  request  of  the  inspector,  the  manufac- 
turer shall  furnish  a  portion  of  the  test  ingot 
for  check  analyses. 

The  analyses  shall  be  made  on  drillings  taken 
from  the  ladle  test  ingot  not  less  than  one- 
eighth  inch  beneath  the  surface. 

7.  Tests  shall  be  made  to  determine : 

(a)  Ductility  or  toughness  as  opposed  to  brit- 
tleness. 

(b)  Soundness. 

8.  The  physical  qualities  shall  be  determined  by 
the  drop  test. 

9.  The  drop  testing  machine  used  shall  be  the 
standard  of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  As- 
sociation. 

(a)  The  tup  shall  weigh  2,000  Ibs.,  and  have 
a  striking  face  with  a  radius  of  five  inches. 

(b)  The  anvil  block  shall  weigh  20,000  Ibs,, 
and  be  supported  on  springs. 

(c)  The  supports  for  the  test  pieces  shall  be 
spaced  three  feet  between  centers  and  shall  be  a 
part  of,  and  firmly  secured  to,  the  anvil.     The 
bearing  surfaces  of  the  supports  shall  have  a 
radius  of  five  inches. 

10.  Drop  tests  shall  be  made  on  pieces  of  rail 
not  less  than  four  feet  and  not  more  than  six  feet 
long.    These  test  pieces  shall  be  cut  from  the  top  end 
of  the  top  rail  of  the  ingot,  and  marked  on  the  base 
or  head  with  gage  marks  one  inch  apart  for  three 

98 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

inches  each  side  of  the  center  of  the  test  piece,  for 
measuring  the  ductility  of  the  metal. 

11.  The  temperature  of  the  test  pieces  shall  be 
between  60  and  100  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

12.  The  test  piece  shall  preferably  be  placed  base 
upwards  on  the  supports,  and  be  subjected  to  impact 
of  the  tup  falling  free  from  the  following  heights : 

For  70-lb.  rail 16  feet 

For  80,  85  and  90-lb.  rail 17  feet 

For  100-lb.  rail   18  feet 

13.  (a)   Under  these  impacts  the  rail  under  one 
or  more  blows  shall  show  at  least  6  per  cent  elonga- 
tion for  one  inch,  or  5  per  cent  each  for  two  conse- 
cutive inches  of  the  six-inch  scale,  marked  as  de- 
scribed in  Sec.  10. 

(b)  A  sufficient  number  of  blows  shall  be  given 
to  determine  the  complete  elongation  of  one  out  of 
every  three  test  pieces  of  a  heat. 

14.  It  is  desired  that  the  permanent  set  after  one 
blow  under  the  drop  test  shall  not  exceed  that  in  the 
following  table,  and  a  record  shall  be  made  of  this 
information : 

*     Permanent  set  measured  by  middle  ordinate  in 
inches  in  a  length  of  three  feet. 


Rail 
Section 

Weight/ 
Per  Yard 

Moment 
of  Inertia 

*Inch 

A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 
A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 
A.R.A—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 
A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 

100  Ibs. 
100  Ibs. 
90  Ibs. 
90  Ibs. 
80  Ibs. 
80  Ibs. 
70  Ibs. 
70  Ibs. 

48.94 
41.30 
38.70 
32.30 
28.80 
25.10 
21.05 
18.60 

1.45 
1.80 
1.65 
2.00 
2.45 
2.85 
3.10 
3.50 

15.  The  test  pieces  which  do  not  break  under  the 
first  or  subsequent  blows  shall  be  nicked  and  broken, 
to  determine  whether  the  interior  metal  is  sound. 


99 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

The  words  interior  defect,  used  below,  shall  be  inter- 
preted to  mean  seams,  laminations,  cavities  or  inter- 
posed foreign  matter  made  visible  by  the  destruction 
tests,  the  saws  or  the  drills. 

16.  This  clause  applies  to  Bessemer  steel. 

17.  Test  pieces  shall  be  selected  from  the  second, 
middle  and  last  full  ingot  of  each  heat. 

(a)  If  two  of  these  test  pieces  do  not  break  at 
at  the  first  blow,  and  if  both  show  the  required 
elongation   (Section  13),  all  of  the  rails  of  the 
heat  shall  be  accepted,  provided  that  none  of  the 
three  test  pieces  when  broken  show  interior  de- 
fect. 

(b)  If  two  of  the  test  pieces  break  at  the  first 
blow,  or  do  not  show  the  required  elongation 
(Section  13),  or  if  any  of  the  three  test  pieces 
when  broken  show  interior  defect,  all  of  the  top 
rails  from  that  heat  shall  be  rejected. 

(c)  Second   tests   shall   then   be   made   from 
three  test  pieces  selected  by  the  inspector  from 
the  top  end  of  any  second  rails  of  the  same  heat, 
preferably  of  the  same  ingots.     If  two  of  these 
test  pieces  do  not  break  at  the  first  blow,  and  if 
both  show  the  required  elongation  (Section  13), 
all  of  the  remainder  of  the  rails  of  the  heat  shall 
be  accepted,  provided  that  none  of  the  three  test 
pieces  when  broken  shows  interior  defect. 

(d)  If  two  of  these  test  pieces  break  at  the 
first  blow,  or  do  not  show  the  required  elonga- 
tion   (Section  13),  or  if  any  of  the  three  test 
pieces  when  broken  show  interior  defect,  all  of 
the  second  rails  of  the  heat  shall  be  rejected. 

(e)  Third  tests  shall  then  be  made  from  three 
test  pieces  selected  by  the  inspector  from  the  top 
end  of  any  third  rails  of  the  same  heat,  prefer- 
ably of  the  same  ingots.     If  two  of  these  test 
pieces  do  not  break  at  the  first  blow,  and  if  both 

100 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

show  the  required  elongation  (Section  13),  all  of 
the  remainder  of  the  rails  of  the  heat  shall  be 
accepted,  provided  that  none  of  the  three  test 
pieces  when  broken  show  interior  defect. 

(f )  If  two  of  these  test  pieces  break  at  the 
first  blow,  or  do  not  show  the  required  elonga- 
tion (Section  13),  or  if  any  of  the  three  test 
pieces  when  broken  show  interior  defect,  all  of 
the  remainder  of  the  rails  from  that  heat  shall 
be  rejected. 

18.  No.  1  classification  rails  shall  be  free  from 
injurious  defects  and  flaws  of  all  kinds. 

19.  (a)   Eails,  which,  by  reason  of  surface  im- 
perfections or  for  causes  mentioned  in   Section  29 
hereof,  are  not  classed  as  No.  1  rails,  will  be  ac- 
cepted as  No.  2  rails;  but  No.  2  rails  which  contain 
imperfections  in  such  number  or  of  such  character 
as  will,  in  the  judgment  of  the  inspector,  render  them 
unfit  for  recognized  No.  2  uses,  will  not  be  accepted 
for  shipment. 

(b)  No.  2  rails  to  the  extent  of  5  per  cent  of  the 
whole  order  will  be  received.  All  rails  accepted  as 
No.  2  rails  shall  have  the  ends  painted  white  and 
shall  have  two  prick  punch  marks  on  the  side  of  the 
web  near  the  heat  number  near  the  end  of  the  rail, 
so  placed  as  not  to  be  covered  by  the  splice  bars. 

20.  The  entire  process  of  manufacture  shall  be  in 
accordance  with  the  best  current  state  of  the  art. 

21.  Bled  ingots  shall  not  be  used. 

22.  There  shall  be  sheared  from  the  end  of  the 
bloom,  formed  from  the  top  of  the  ingot,  sufficient 
metal  to  secure  sound  rails. 

23.  The  standard  length  of  rails  shall  be  33  feet, 
at  a  temperature  of  60  degrees  Fahrenheit.    Ten  per 
cent  of  the  entire  order  will  be  accepted  in  shorter 
lengths  varying  by  1  foot  from  32  feet  to  25  feet.    A 

101 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

variation  of  one-fourth  inch  from  the  specified 
lengths  will  be  allowed,  excepting  that  for  15  per 
cent  of  the  order  a  variation  of  three-eighths  inch 
from  the  specified  lengths  will  be  allowed.  No.  1 
rails  less  than  33  feet  long  shall  be  painted  green 
on  both  ends. 

24.  The  number  of  passes  and  speed  of  train  shall 
be  so  regulated  that  on  leaving  the  rolls  at  the  final 
pass,  the  temperature  of  the  rail  will  not  exceed  that 
which   requires   a   shrinkage   allowance   at   the   hot 
saws,  for  a  rail  33  feet  in  length  and  of  100  Ibs.  sec- 
tion, of  six  and  three-fourths  inches  and  one-eighth 
inch  less  for  each  ten  pounds  decrease  in  section. 

25.  The  bars  shall  not  be  held  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  their  temperature,  nor  shall  any  artificial 
means  of  cooling  them  be  used  after  they  leave  the 
finishing  pass.    Rails,  while  on  the  cooling  beds,  shall 
be  protected  from  snow  and  water. 

26.  The  section  of  rails  shall  conform  as  accu- 
rately as  possible  to  the  template  furnished  by  the 
railroad  company.     A  variation   in  height  of  one- 
sixty-fourth    inch    less    or    one-thirty-second    inch 
greater  than  the  specified  height,  and  one-sixteenth 
inch  in  width  of  flange,  will  be  permitted;  but  no 
variation  shall  be  allowed  in  the  dimensions  affect- 
ing the  fit  of  the  splice  bars. 

27.  The  weight  of  the  rails  specified  in  the  order 
shall  be  maintained  as  nearly  as  possible,  after  com- 
plying with  the  preceding  section.     A  variation  of 
one-half  of  1  per  cent  from  the  calculated  weight  of 
section,  as  applied  to  an  entire  order,  will  be  allowed. 

28.  Rails  accepted  will  be  paid  for  according  to 
actual  weights. 

29.  (a)   The  hot  straightening  shall  be  carefully 
done,  so  that  gagging  under  the  cold  presses  will  be 
reduced  to   a  minimum.     Any  rail   coming  to   the 

102 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

straightening  presses  showing  sharp  kinks  or  greater 
camber  than  that  indicated  by  a  middle  ordinate  of 

4  inches  in  33  feet  for  A.  R.  A.  type  of  sections,  or 

5  inches  for  A.  S.  C.  E.  type  of  sections,  will  be  at 
once  classed  as  a  No.  2  rail.    The  distance  between 
the  supports  of  rails  in  the  straightening  presses 
shall  not  be  less  than  42  inches.    The  supports  shall 
have  flat  surfaces  and  be  out  of  wind. 

(b)   Hails   heard   to    snap   or   check   while   being 
straightened  shall  be  at  once  rejected. 

30.  Circular  holes  for  joint  bolts  shall  be  drilled 
to  conform  to  the  drawing  and  dimensions  furnished 
by  the  railroad  company. 

31.  (a)   All   rails   shall   be   smooth   on   the  heads, 
straight  in  line  and  surface,  and  without  any  twists, 
waves  or  kinks.    They  shall  be  sawed  square  at  the 
ends,  a  variation  of  not  more  than  one-thirty-second 
inch  being  allowed;  and  burrs  shall  be  carefully  re- 
moved. 

(b)  Rails  improperly  drilled  or  straightened,  or 
from  which  the  burrs  have  not  been  removed,  shall 
be  rejected,  but  may  be  accepted  after  being  prop- 
erly finished. 

(c)  When  any  finished  rail  shows  interior  defects 
at  either  end  or  in  any  drilled  hole  the  entire  rail 
shall  be  rejected. 

32.  Rails  shall  be  branded  for  identification  in  the 
following  manner: 

(a)  The  name  of  the  manufacturer,  the 
month  and  year  of  manufacture,  and  the  weight 
and  type  or  section  of  rail  shall  be  rolled  in 
raised  letters  and  figures  on  the  side  of  the  web. 
The  type  shall  be  marked  by  letters  which  sig- 
nify the  name  by  which  it  is  known,  as  for  ex- 
ample : 

Sections  of  Am.  Soc.  of  Civ.  Engrs  ____  A.S.C.E. 

Sections  of  Am.  Ry.  Assn  ' 


Sections  of  Am.  Ry.  Eng.  Assocn  .........  R.E. 

103 


Open  Hearth  Specifications. 

(b)  The  number  of  the  heat  and  letter  indi- 
cating the  portion  of  the  ingot  from  which  the 
rail  was  made  shall  be  plainly  stamped  on  the 
web  of  each  rail  where  it  will  not  be  covered  by 
the  joint  bars.     The  top  rails  shall  be  lettered 
A  and  the  succeeding  ones  B,  C,  D,  etc.,  con- 
secutively; but  in  case  of  a  top  discard  of  from 
20  to  35  per  cent,  the  letter  A  will  be  omitted, 
the  top  rail  becoming  B.  If  the  top  discard  be 
greater  than  35  per  cent  the  letter  B  shall  be 
omitted,  the  top  rail  becoming  C. 

(c)  Rails  shall  be  branded  or  stamped  O-H 
in  addition  to  the  other  marks. 

(d)  All  markings  of  rails  shall  be  done  so  ef- 
fectively that  the  marks  may  be  read  as  long  as 
the  rails  are  in  service. 

33.  All   classes   of  rails   shall   be  kept   separate 
from  each  other. 

34.  Kails  shall  be  carefully  handled  and  loaded  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  injure  them. 


104 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

AMERICAN    RAILWAY    ENGINEERING   ASSO- 
CIATION. 

1915   SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  BESSEMER 
STEEL  RAIL 

1.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  — . 

2.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  — . 

3.  The  material  shall  be  steel,  made  by  the  Besse- 
mer process,  as  provided  by  the  contract. 

4.  The  chemical  composition  of  each  heat  of  the 
steel  from  which  the  rails  are  rolled,  determined  as 
prescribed  in  Section  6,  shall  be  within  the  following 
limits : 

-Per  Cent 


Elements  — 

70  Lbs.  and 
over,  but  un- 
der 85  Lbs. 

85-100  Lbs., 
inclusive 

Carbon   

.  .0.40  to  0.50 

0.45  to  0.55 
0.10 
0.80  to  1.10 
0.10 

Phosphorus,  not 
Manganese 

to  exceed.             0.10 
0.80  to  1.10 

Silicon,  not  less 

than.  . 

0.10 

When    other    acceptable    deoxidizing    agents    are 
used,  the  minimum  limit  for  Silicon  will  be  omitted. 

5.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  specifications,  page  97. 

6.  In   order  to   ascertain  whether  the   chemical 
composition  is  in  accordance  with  the  requirements, 
analyses  shall  be  furnished  as  follows: 

(a)  The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  to  the  in- 
spector daily,  carbon  determinations  for  each 
heat  before  the  rails  are  shipped,  and  two  chemi- 
cal analyses  every  twenty-four  hours  represent- 
ing the  average  of  the  elements  carbon,  man- 
ganese, silicon,  phosphorus  and  sulphur  con- 
tained in  the  steel,  one  for  each  day  and  night 
turn  respectively.  These  analyses  shall  be  made 
on  drillings  taken  from  the  ladle  test  ingot  not 
less  than  one-eighth  inch  beneath  the  surface. 

105 


Bessemer  Specifications. 

(b)  This  clause  applies  to  Open  Hearth  steel 
only. 

(c)  Same    as    Open    Hearth    Specifications, 
page  98. 

7.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  98. 

8.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  98. 

9.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  98. 

10.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  98. 

11.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  99. 

12.  Same  as  Open  Hearth  Specifications,  page  99. 

13.  (a)      Same    as    Open    Hearth    Specifications, 
page  99. 

(b)  A  sufficient  number  of  blows  shall  be  given  to 
determine  the  complete  elongation  of  the  test  piece 
of  at  least  every  fifth  heat  of  steel. 

14.  It  is  desired  that  the  permanent  set  after  one 
blow  under  the  drop  test  shall  not  exceed  that  in  the 
following  table,  and  a  record  shall  be  made  of  this 
information : 

*  Permanent  set  measured  by  middle  ordinate  in 
inches  in  a  length  of  three  feet. 


Rail 

Section 

Weight, 
Per  Yard 

Moment 
of  Inertia 

*Inch 

A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 
A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 
A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A.—  B 
A.R.A.—  A 
A.R.A—  B 

100  Ibs. 
100  Ibs. 
90  Ibs. 
90  Ibs. 
80  Ibs. 
80  Ibs. 
70  Ibs. 
70  Ibs. 

48.94 
41.30 
38.70 
32.30 
28.80 
25.10 
21.05 
18.60 

1.65 
2.05 
1.90 
2.20 
2.85 
3.15 
3.50 
3.85 

15.  Same  as  Open  Hearth. 

16.  One  piece  shall  be  tested  from  each  heat. 

(a)  If  the  test  piece  does  not  break  at  the 
first  blow  and  shows  the  required  elongation 
(Section  13),  all  of  the  rails  of  the  heat  shall  be 
accepted,  provided  that  the  test  piece  when 
broken  does  not  show  interior  defect. 

106 


Bessemer  Specifications. 

(b)  If  the  test  piece  breaks  at  the  first  blow, 
or  does  not  show  the  required  elongation   (Sec- 
tion 13),  or  if  the  test  piece  does  not  break  and 
shows  the  required  elongation,  but  when  broken 
shows  interior  defect,  all  of  the  top  rails  from 
that  heat  shall  be  rejected. 

(c)  A  second  test  shall  then  be  made  of  a  test 
piece  selected  by  the  inspector  from  the  top  end 
of  any  second  rail  of  the  same  heat,  preferably 
of  the  same  ingot.     If  the  test  piece  does  not 
break  at  the  first  blow,  and  shows  the  required 
elongation  (Section  13),  all  of  the  remainder  of 
the  rails  of  the  heat  shall  be  accepted,  provided 
that  the  test  piece  when  broken  does  not  show 
interior  defect. 

(d)  If  the  test  piece  breaks  at  the  first  blow, 
or  does  not  show  the  required  elongation   (Sec- 
tion 13),  or  if  the  test  piece  does  not  break  and 
shows  the  required  elongation,  but  when  broken 
shows  interior  defect,  all  of  the  second  rails  from 
that  heat  shall  be  rejected. 

(e)  A  third  test  shall  then  be  made  of  a  test 
piece  selected  by  the  inspector  from  the  top  end 
of  any  third  rail  of  the  same  heat,  preferably  of 
the  same  ingot.    If  the  test  piece  does  not  break 
at  the  first  blow  and  shows  the  required  elonga- 
tion   (Section  13),  all  of  the  remainder  of  the 
rails  of  the  heat  shall  be  accepted,  provided  that 
the  test  piece  when  broken  does  not  show  interior 
defect. 

(f )  If  the  test  piece  breaks  at  the  first  blow, 
or  does  not  show  the  required  elongation   (Sec- 
tion 13),  or  if  the  test  piece  does  not  break  and 
shows  the  required  elongation,  but  when  broken 
shows  interior  defect,  all  of  the  remainder  of 
the  rails  from  that  heat  shall  be  rejected. 

17.  This  clause  applies  to  Open  Hearth  Specifica- 
tions only. 

18.  Same   as    Open    Hearth    Specifications,   page 
101. 

19.  Same   as    Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
101. 

20.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
101. 

107 


Bessemer  Specifications. 

21.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
101. 

22.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
101. 

23.  Same   as    Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
101. 

24.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
102. 

25.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
102. 

26.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
102. 

27.  Same   as   Open   Hearth   Specifications,   page 
102. 

28.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
102. 

29.  Same   as    Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
102. 

30.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
103. 

31.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
103. 

32.  (a)   Same    as    Open    Hearth    Specifications, 
page  103. 

(b)  Same    as    Open    Hearth    Specifications, 
page  104. 

(c)  This  clause  applies  to  Open  Hearth  Spe- 
cifications only. 

(d)  Same   as     Open     Hearth     Specifications, 
page  104. 

33.  Same   as    Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
104. 

34.  Same   as   Open   Hearth    Specifications,   page 
104. 


108 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

MODIFICATION   OF    SPECIFICATIONS    SO   AS 

TO  REQUIRE   NICK-AND-BREAK 

TEST  ON  EACH  INGOT. 

17.     Test  pieces  shall  be  selected  from  the  second, 
middle  and  last  full  ingot  of  each  Open  Hearth  heat. 

(a)  If  two  of  these  test  pieces  do  not  break  at 
the  first  blow,  and  if  both   show  the  required 
elongation   (Section  13),  all  of  the  rails  of  the 
heat  shall  be  accepted,  except  as  provided  by 
Clause  (g). 

(b)  If  two  of  the  test  pieces  break  at  the  first 
blow   or   do   not  show  the  required   elongation 
Section  (13),  all  of  the  top  rails  from  that  heat 
shall  be  rejected. 

(c)  Second   tests    shall   then   be   made   from 
three  test  pieces  selected  by  the  inspector  from 
the  top  end  of  any  second  rails  of  the  same  heat, 
preferably  of  the  same  ingots.     If  two  of  these 
test  pieces  do  not  break  at  the  first  blow  and  if 
both  show  the  required  elongation  (Section  13), 
all  of  the  remainder  of  the  rails  of  the  heat  shall 
be  accepted,  except  as  provided  by  Clause  (g). 

(d)  If  two  of  these  test  pieces  break  at  the 
first  blow  or  do  not  show  the  required  elonga- 
tion (Section  13),  all  of  the  second  rails  of  the 
heat  shall  be  rejected. 

(e)  Third  tests  shall  then  be  made  from  three 
test  pieces  selected  by  the  inspector  from  the  top 
end  of  any  third  rails  of  the  same  heat,  prefer- 
ably of  the  same  .ingots.     If  two  of  these  test 
pieces  do  not  break  at  the  first  blow,  and  if  both 
show  the  required  elongation  (Section  13),  all  of 
the  remainder  of  the  rails  of  the  heat  shall  be 
accepted,  except  as  provided  by  Clause  (g). 

(f)  If  two  of  these  test  pieces  break  at  the 
first  blow,  or  do  not  show  the  required  elonga- 
tion  (Section  13),  all  of  the  remainder  of  the 
rails  from  that  heat  shall  be  rejected. 

(g)  The  test  pieces  which  have  successfully 
withstood  the  drop  test  and  also  a  piece  repre- 
senting the  top  crop  end  of  all  other  top  rails 
shall  be   nicked   and  broken.     If   the   fracture 
shows  interior  defect  the  A  or  top  rail  of  the 

109 


Nick-and-Break  Test. 

ingot  shall  be  rejected  and  a  piece  cut  from  its 
bottom  end  to  represent  the  B  or  second  rail  of 
the  same  ingot.  This  piece  shall  then  be  nicked 
and  broken,  and  if  its  fracture  shows  interior 
defect  the  rail  represented  shall  be  rejected. 
The  testing  by  nicking  and  breaking  shall  pro- 
ceed progressively  in  this  manner  on  all  the  rails 
of  each  ingot,  if  necessary,  and  they  shall  be 
accepted  or  rejected,  according  as  the  fracture 
of  the  test  piece  representing  them  shows  inte- 
rior defect. 

32.  (e)  Each  rail  must  be  stamped  with  a  num- 
ber to  indicate  the  ingot  from  which  it  was  rolled,  so 
as  to  permit  of  identification  with  the  other  rails  of 
the  same  ingot. 


HO 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

MODIFICATION   OF    SPECIFICATIONS    SO   AS 
TO  REQUIRE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS 

OF  FINISHED  RAIL. 
(Adopted  by  Penna.  R.  R.,  1915.) 

In  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  chemical  com- 
position is  in  accordance  with  the  requirements,  an- 
alyses shall  be  furnished  as  follows: 

(a)  For  the  Bessemer  process,  the  manufac- 
turer shall  furnish  to  the  inspector  daily,  the 
carbon  determination  for  each  melt  before  the 
rails  are   shipped,   and  two  chemical   analyses 
every  twenty-four  hours,  representing  the  aver- 
age of  the  elements,  carbon,  manganese,  silicon, 
phosphorus  and  sulphur,  contained  in  the  steel, 
one  for  each  day  and  night  turn,  respectively. 
The  analyses  shall  be  made  on  drillings  taken 
from  the  ladle  test  ingot  not  less  than  %  inch 
beneath  the  surface. 

(b)  For  the  Open  Hearth  process,  the  makers 
shall  furnish  the  inspector  with  a  chemical  an- 
alysis of  the  elements,  carbon,  manganese,  sili- 
con, phosphorus  and  sulphur,  for  each  melt. 

(c)  For  the  Open  Hearth  process,  a  check  an- 
alysis will  be  made  by  the  purchaser  of  a  piece 


Fig.  9. 


of  rail  representing  a  melt,  after  the  rails  from 
that  melt  have  passed  the  physical  requirements. 
On  request  of  the  inspector,  and  in  his  presence, 
the  manufacturer  shall  furnish  from  one  of  the 
drop  test  pieces  representing  the  melt,  drillings 
satisfactory  to  the  inspector,  taken  with  a  %- 
inch  flat  drill,  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  rail, 

ill 


Chemical  Analysis — Finished  Rail. 

at  a  point  one-third  of  the  distance  from  the  up- 
per corner  to  the  center  of  the  head,  as  shown  at 
location  O  in  Fig.  9.  The  analysis  from  these 
drillings  shall  conform  to  the  chemical  require- 
ments specified,  and  failure  to  meet  these  re- 
quirements shall  be  sufficient  cause  for  the  re- 
jection of  the  entire  melt. 

(d)  For  the  Open  Hearth  process,  after  the 
rail  has  passed  the  physical  requirements,  addi- 
tional drillings  will  be  taken  from  the  same  rail, 
and  in  the  same  manner  as  specified  in  clause 
(c),  at  the  junction  of  the  head  and  web,  as 

shown  at  location  M  in  Fig.  9.  The  carbon  de- 
termination from  these  drillings  shall  be  within 
12  per  cent  of  the  amount  found  at  location  0. 
If  the  test  from  the  top  rails  fails  to  meet  this 
requirement,  all  the  top  rails  from  the  melt  shall 
be  rejected,  and  a  similar  determination  shall  be 
made  from  location  M  of  a  second  rail.  If  this 
test  fails  all  the  second  rails  from  the  melt  shall 
be  rejected,  and  a  similar  determination  shall 
be  made  from  location  M  of  a  third  rail.  If  this 
test  fails  all  the  remaining  rails  from  the  melt 
shall  be  rejected. 

(e)  If,  however,  the  segregation  found  at  lo- 
cation M  in  any  rail  in  a  rolling  exceeds  25  per 
cent,  when  determined  as  provided  for  in  clause 
(d),  the  progressive  testing  of  the  second  and 
third  rails  will  not  be  permitted  on  any  subse- 
quent melts;  but  on  such  melts  the  failure  of 
the  top  rail  to  pass  the  requirements  provided 
for  in  clause  (d)  will  cause  the  rejection  of  the 
entire  heat. 

NOTES. 

1.  When   the    analysis   for    carbon    by   the    mill 
chemists  and  by  the  railroad  chemists  do  not  agree, 
a  tolerance  of  two  points  below  the  minimum  or  two 
points  above  the  maximum  will  be  allowed  to  cover 
such  variation  before  condemnation. 

2.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  test  rails  lower  than 
the  first  rail,  the  bottom  of  the  first  rail,  in  lieu  of 
the  top  of  the  second  rail;  and  the  bottom  of  the 
second  rail,  in  lieu  of  the  top  of  the  third  rail,  will 
be  accepted,  if  preferred  by  the  manufacturer. 

112 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

TOLERANCES. 

Metallic  products  of  large  size  cannot  readily  be 
cast  or  rolled  to  exact  dimensions  specified,  but 
where  such  results  are  desired  must  be  sent  to  the 
machine  shop,  and  brought  to  exact  size  by  means  of 
planers,  lathes,  etc.;  in  the  case  of  rails,  such  ma- 
chine shop  work  would  be  very  expensive. 

Efforts  to  have  the  rails  rolled  to  the  exact  di- 
mensions specified,  would  also  necessitate  changing 
rolls  in  the  rolling-mill  very  often,  and  as  soon  as 
the  old  rolls  showed  any  signs  of  wear. 

These  additional  expenses  would  not  be  warranted 
by  the  benefits  that  might  be  gained,  therefore,  as 
a  matter  of  economy,  small  variations  or  depart- 
ures from  the  plans  and  specifications  are  usually 
permitted;  these  variations  are  generally  called 
"permissible  tolerances." 

A  perusal  of  the  specifications  will  show  the  usual 
tolerances  embodied  therein,  but  for  convenience 
they  are  summarized  in  this  chapter,  so  that  the 
Trackman  will  understand  clearly  just  what  varia- 
tions from  plans  and  specifications  he  may  expect 
to  find  in  new  rail  delivered  him. 

LENGTH. 

The  present  standard  length  of  rail  is  33  feet,  but 
usually  10  per  cent  of  the  entire  order  will  be  ac- 
cepted in  shorter  lengths,  varying  by  one  foot  from 
32  feet  to  and  including  25  feet,  or  in  some  cases  24 
feet. 

Most  specifications  permit  a  variation  of  ^  inch 
from  the  specified  lengths,  with  a  variation  of  % 
inch  for  15  per  cent  of  the  total  order. 

Some  specifications  require  the  ends  of  the  rails  to 
be  milled,  and  thus  brought  to  exact  length. 
113 


Tolerances. 
ENDS  OF  RAIL. 

Specifications  usually  provide  that  the  ends  of 
rails  shall  be  sawed  square,  but  permit  a  variation 
of  not  more  than  1/32  inch  off  square  in  any  direc- 
tion. Rails  that  are  slightly  "head  long,"  that  is, 
have  the  bases  at  the  ends  undercut,  are  preferable 
to  those  in  the  opposite  condition. 

Where  specifications  require  ends  of  rails  to  be 
milled  in  order  to  bring  the  rails  to  exact  length, 
they  also  specify  that  the  ends  shall  be  milled  square, 
both  laterally  and  vertically;  with  the  higher  sec- 
tions of  rails  an  undercut  of  1/32  inch  is  usually  per- 
mitted. 

HEIGHT. 

The  height  of  the  rail  section  may  be  1/64  inch 
less  or  1/32  inch  greater  than  that  specified. 

BASE. 

The  total  width  of  the  base  may  be  1/16  inch  less 
or  greater  than  specified ;  convex  bases,  called  "rocky 
bottoms,"  are  not  desired,  and  should  not  be  ac- 
cepted at  the  mill. 

FISHING. 

Most  specifications  permit  no  variation  in  those  di- 
mensions which  affect  the  fit  of  the  joint  bars.  Some 
specifications,  however,  allow  1/16  inch  variation, 
either  way,  in  the  horizontal  location  of  the  fishing 
template;  this  is  generally  regarded  as  too  much 
allowance,  and  better  results  are  obtained  where  a 
total  variation  of  less  than  1/16  inch  is  insisted 
upon. 

DRILLING. 

A  variation  of  1/32  inch  in  the  location  of  bolt 
holes  is  usually  permitted,  and  the  holes  may  be  1/32 
inch  larger  than  specified,  but  no  smaller.  In  recent 

114 


Tolerances. 

specifications  of  the  railroad  companies  efforts  have 
been  made  to  have  the  drilling  conform  exactly  to  the 
specifications. 

SECOND  QUALITY  RAILS. 

Nearly  all  specifications  provide  for  the  acceptance 
of  second  quality  rails  to  the  extent  of  5  per  cent  of 
the  total  order;  this  5  per  cent  may  be  included  in  or 
be  additional  to  the  total  tonnage  ordered. 

No.  2  rails  are  always  painted  white  on  both  ends, 
and  have  two  prick  punch  marks  on  the  web  near 
the  bolt  holes. 

WEIGHT. 

On  account  of  the  permissible  tolerances  it  is  im- 
possible to  roll  exactly  to  the  weight  of  rail  ordered, 
and  a  total  variation  of  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  over 
or  under  the  theoretical  weight,  on  the  entire  order 
is  usually  permitted. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  tolerances,  other 
variations,  which  do  not  ordinarily  affect  track  con- 
ditions, may  exist. 

The  width  of  head,  thickness  of  web,  and  thick- 
ness of  flange,  may  vary  slightly  from  specified  di- 
mensions, but  these  can  usually  be  controlled  by  the 
manufacturer  and  the  inspector. 

It  is  important  to  control  the  curve  of  top  of  head, 
and  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  maintain  it  as  de- 
sired. Flat-headed  rails  are  the  result  of  failure  to 
keep  a  full  radius;  on  the  other  hand,  if  allowed  to 
become  too  full,  a  slight  ridge  or  welt,  about  one-half 
inch  wide,  is  left  in  the  center  of  the  head.  Flat- 
headed  rails  should  be  avoided,  but  the  ridge  in  the 
center  is  generally  accepted  as  a  sign  of  good-rolling 
conditions,  and  as  it  soon  disappears  under  traffic, 
such  rails  should  not  be  criticised  unless  the  ridge  is 
too  pronounced. 


115 


PART  VII 

BRANDING  AND  STAMPING. 


INTRODUCTION. 
BRAND: 

Every  rail  manufactured  by  each  mill  is  branded 
with 

The  name  of  the  manufacturer, 
A  number  or  abbreviation  indicating  rail  sec- 
tion and  weight, 

The  month  and  year  of  manufacture,  and 
If  the  metal  is  open  hearth  steel  the  letters 
OH  are  added. 

Square  block  letters  and  figures  about  one  inch 
high  are  commonly  used,  and  as  these  are  cut  into 
one  of  the  rolls  of  the  last  pass,  the  brand  will  al- 
ways appear  SLIGHTLY  RAISED  at  regular  in- 
tervals on  the  web  of  the  rail. 

The  month  is  generally  shown  by  Roman  num- 
erals, as  VII  for  July,  and  sometimes  by  a  series  of 
I's,  as  |  |  |  |  |  for  May. 

The  section  is  usually  shown  by  number  or  com- 
bination of  number  and  letters,  such  as  9020,  902, 
90RA,  etc.,  instead  of  90  ARA-A;  each  mill  has 
special  numbers  which  it  uses  to  designate  the  diff- 
erent rail  sections. 

The  rail  failure  reports  should  show  under  ques- 
tions 2  and  3,  the  marking  of  the  brand  EXACTLY 
as  it  appears  on  the  web  of  the  rail. 
STAMP: 

Every  rail  is  stamped  with 

The  number  representing  the  heat,  blow,  or 
melt  of  steel,  and 

A  letter  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  rail 
in  the  ingot; 

With  rail  rolled  under  specifications  requiring 
a  test  on  every  ingot  (such  as  those  shown  on 

117 


Branding  and  Stamping. 

page  109)  it  is  also  necessary  to  stamp  an  addi- 
tional number  on  each  rail  to  indicate  the  ingot 
from  which  it  was  rolled,  so  that  all  the  rails 
from  each  ingot  can  be  identified. 
There  are  usually  from  four  to  eight  rails,  de- 
pending upon  the  weight,  rolled  from  each  ingot, 
so  that  the  letters  usually  run  from  A  to  G. 

The  heat  number  is  the  number  given  by  the  mill 
to  the  contents  of  the  furnace  or  converter  in  which 
each  melt  of  steel  is  made. 

The  specifications  require  certain  tests  to  be  made 
on  each  melt,  and  a  record  of  the  chemical  tests  of 
each  melt,  and  of  the  physical  tests  on  the  rail  made 
therefrom,  is  kept  under  this  number.  As  this  num- 
ber is  constantly  changing  it  cannot  be  placed  on 
the  rolls  in  the  rolling  mill. 

The  stamping  is  therefore  done  (on  the  web  of 
the  rail)  with  dies  while  the  rail  is  still  red  hot, 
but  after  it  has  been  completely  rolled  and  sawed 
to  length.  The  methods  of  branding  and  stamping 
the  necessary  data  on  the  rail  are  not  uniform. 

Each  mill  uses  different  symbols  to  abbreviate  the 
information,  and  places  these  abbreviations  at  diff- 
erent points  on  the  web  of  the  rail,  and  in  varying 
locations  with  reference  to  each  other. 

Except  at  the  Lorain  mill,  the  heat  number  is 
always  applied  by  dies  carried  on  a  wheel  which 
revolves,  so  that  when  brought  into  contact  with  the 
moving  rail,  the  numerals  on  the  face  of  the  dies 
are  stamped  on  the  web.  It  may  be  repeated  there- 
fore several  times  on  the  rail  length,  or  it  may  be 
shown  only  once  or  twice,  according  to  mechanical 
conditions  at  the  mill. 

The  letter  showing  the  position  of  the  rail  in  the 
ingot  is  sometimes  stamped  on  by  hand,  in  which 
case  a  die  is  held  on  the  rail  and  struck  with  a 

118 


Branding  and  Stamping. 

hammer,  but  generally  it  is  applied  by  the  same  or 
another  machine  that  stamps  the  heat  number. 

Of  course,  if  the  dies  become  worn  or  slightly 
twisted  the  figures  and  letters  are  bound  to  be  in- 
distinct. 

All  rails  rolled  since  1912  have  the  brand  on  one 
side  of  the  web,  and  the  stamp  on  the  other  side. 
Remembering  that  the  brand  always  appears  in 
RAISED  LETTERS,  and  the  heat  number  and  rail 
letter  in  SUNKEN  LETTERS  AND  FIGURES,  no 
confusion  of  the  two  should  arise. 

The  trackman  should  familiarize  himself  with  the 
particular  brands  and  stamps  of  all  rail  in  service 
on  his  territory,  and  for  convenience,  a  blank  form 
is  given  on  which  may  be  entered  the  abbreviations 
and  symbols  for  such  rail. 


119 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

AMERICAN  RAIL  MILLS— STAMPING 
PRACTICE. 

ALGOMA  STEEL  CO. 

Bessemer  heat  numbers  contain  from  one  to  five 
figures  and  Open  Hearth  heat  numbers  generally 
four  figures;  these  are  stamped  at  least  three  times 
on  the  unbranded  side  of  the  web. 

BETHLEHEM  STEEL  CO. 

There  are  always  five  figures  in  the  heat  number, 
which  is  stamped  at  least  once  on  the  unbranded 
side  of  the  web,  generally  near  the  center. 

Prior  to  1914  a  letter  was  placed  in  front  of  the 
heat  number  to  indicate  which  furnace  furnished 
the  metal;  this  should  not  be  confused  with  the  rail 
letter  which  follows  the  heat  number  and  is  stamped 
by  the  same  machine.  Typical  stamping  would  be 
B18945  C,  which  would  mean  a  C  rail  from  heat 
number  18945  from  furnace  B.  The  furnace  letter 
has  been  omitted  since  1914. 

CAMBRIA  STEEL  CO. 

Bessemer  heat  numbers  may  contain  from  one  to 
five  figures,  open  hearth  heats  always  contain  five 
figures;  these  are  stamped  at  least  twice  on  the 
unbranded  side  of  the  web. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  by  a  separate  machine 
so  that  it  usually  appears  about  six  times  on  the 
rail  length  and  can  therefore  be  easily  located. 

Prior  to  1908  the  brand  and  heat  number  were 
placed  on  same  side  of  web. 

CARNEGIE  STEEL  CO.  (Edgar  Thompson  Works) 
Bessemer  heat  numbers  may  contain  from  one  to 
five  figures,  open  hearth  heats  always  contain  five 
figures;  these  are  stamped  at  least  three  times  on 
the  unbranded  side  of  the  web. 

120 


American  Mills — Stamping  Practice. 

Formerly,  the  rail  letter  was  stamped  on  by  hand, 
generally  twice  near  one  end,  but  the  stamping  is 
now  done  by  the  heat-numbering  machine. 

Prior  to  1913  a  new  series  of  numbers  (each 
starting  with  number  one)  were  used  for  Bessemer 
heats  beginning  with  each  quarter,  so  that  it  was 
possible  to  have  four  heats  of  the  same  number 
each  year,  and  the  month  must  therefore  be  given 
in  order  to  identify  the  heat. 
COLORADO  FUEL  AND  IRON  CO. 

There  are  from  one  to  four  figures  in  the  heat 
number,  which  is  stamped  four  times  on  the  un- 
branded  side  of  the  web. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  on  by  hand  at  least 
once  near  the  end  of  the  rail  so  that  it  will  be 
near  the  joints,  and  may  be  upside  down. 

Prior  to  19J£  the  heat  number  was  stamped  on 
the  branded  side  of  the  web  at  least  twice,  and  as 
the  branding  and  stamping  sometimes  came  close  to- 
gether some  confusion  was  caused  and  the  practice 
was  therefore  discontinued. 

DOMINION  IRON  &  STEEL  CO. 

There  are  always  four  figures  in  the  heat  num- 
ber, which  is  stamped  at  least  twice  on  the  un- 
branded  side  of  the  web. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  on  by  hand  at  least 
once  near  the  end  of  the  rail  so  that  it  will  be  near 
the  joints. 

ILLINOIS  STEEL  CO.     (Gary  Works). 

There  are  always  five  figures  in  the  heat  number, 
which  is  stamped  at  least  twice  on  the  unbranded 
side  of  the  web. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  on  by  the  same  machine 
that  stamps  the  heat  number,  and  it  will  therefore 
appear  as  often  as  the  heat  number  and  following 

121 


American  Mills — Stamping  Practice. 

it;  the  distance  between  the  last  figure  of  the  heat 
number  and  the  letter  may  assist  in  deciphering 
the  letter,  as  this  distance  increases  regularly  for 
each  succeeding  letter;  e.  g.,  16897  B  and 
16897  G. 

ILLINOIS  STEEL  CO.     (South  Works). 

There  may  be  from  one  to  five  figures  in  the  heat 
number,  in  other  respects  the  stamping  is  identical 
with  that  at  Gary. 

LA CKA  WANNA  STEEL  CO. 

There  may  be  from  one  to  five  figures  in  the  heat 
number,  which  is  stamped  at  least  once  on  the  un- 
branded  side  of  the  web,  usually  near  the  middle  of 
the  rail. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  on  by  a  separate  ma- 
chine at  least  twice,  generally  appearing  near  the 
heat  number. 

On  open  hearth  rail  the  letters  OH  may  be 
stamped  to  one  side  of  the  heat  number. 

LORAIN  STEEL  CO. 

There  are  always  four  figures  in  the  heat  num- 
ber, which  is  stamped  by  hand  near  one  end  of  the 
rail  so  that  it  will  be  near  the  joints. 

Unless  specially  required  rail  letters  are  not 
stamped  on  rail  made  at  this  mill. 

MARYLAND  STEEL  CO. 

Bessemer  heat  numbers  may  contain  from  one  to 
five  figures,  open  hearth  heats  always  contain  four 
figures ;  these  are  stamped  at  least  twice  on  the  un- 
branded  side  of  the  web. 

In  front  of  the  heat  number  a  character  is  used 
which,  on  Bessemer  steel,  indicates  the  ingot  num- 
ber, and  on  Open  Hearth  steel,  indicates  the  number 
of  the  furnace;  this  character  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  heat  number. 
122 


American  Mills — Stamping  Practice. 

The  rail  letter  immediately  follows  the  last  figure 
of  the  heat  number,  being  added  by  the  same  ma- 
chine; e.  g.,  4167D. 

MONTEREY  IRON  &  STEEL  CO. 

There  are  always  four  figures  in  the  heat  num- 
ber, which  is  stamped  at  least  three  times  on  the 
unbranded  side  of  the  web. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  on  by  the  same  ma- 
chine and  immediately  follows  the  last  figure  of  the 
heat  number. 

PENNSYLVANIA  STEEL  CO. 

There  are  either  four  or  five  figures  in  the  heat 
number,  which,  prior  to  1915,  was  stamped  on  the 
branded  side  of  the  web  at  least  twice;  the  rail 
letter  was  stamped  on  by  a  different  machine,  at 
least  once,  generally  near  the  center  of  the  rail. 
Under  this  method  it  was  possible  for  the  branding 
and  stamping  to  come  close  together  and  cause  con- 
fusion; this  practice  has  been  changed,  and  the 
number  and  letter  are  now  stamped  by  the  same 
machine  on  the  unbranded  side  of  the  web. 

TENNESSEE  COAL,  IRON  &  RAILROAD  CO. 

There  are  always  five  figures  in  the  heat  num- 
ber, which  is  stamped  on  the  unbranded  side  of  the 
web  at  least  twice. 

The  rail  letter  is  stamped  on  by  the  same  machine, 
but  appears  in  front  of  the  heat  number. 


123 


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124 


PART  VIII 

RAIL  SECTIONS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Following  chapters  show  dimensions  of,  and  other 
data  concerning,  the  various  rail  sections  recom- 
mended for  general  use  by  the 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1893, 
American  Railway  Association  in  1908,  and 
American  Railway  Engineering  Association  in 

1915. 

Special  sections  have,  from  time  to  time,  been 
adopted  by  individual  railroads,  with  a  view  of 
meeting  special  conditions  of  their  service  and 
locality.  The  principal  characteristics  of  those  sec- 
tions are  given  on  pages  140  to  142  and  on  page  144 
is  a  blank  form  on  which  can  be  entered  additional 
data  concerning  those  or  other  special  sections. 

In  their  study  of  rail  sections,  and  their  relation 
to  manufacturing  processes,  the  committees  of  the 
various  Associations  have,  from  time  to  time,  enun- 
ciated the  following  principles  that  govern  the  de- 
sign of  rail  sections: 

1.  Metal  in  head  and  web  to  be  well  balanced  in 
order  to 

(a)  Obtain   uniformity   in   cooling   and   thus 
reduce  internal  strains, 

(b)  Have  rail   as  straight  as  possible  when 
cooled    so    as    to    avoid    excessive    cold 
straightening, 

(c)  Obtain    uniformity    and    homogeneity    of 
metal  in  head  and  base  after  rolling. 

2.  Outer  edges  of  base  to  be  thick  enough  to 

(a)  Avoid  rapid  cooling  and  difficulty  in  fill- 
ing out  to  full  width  without  development 
of  flaws, 

(b)  Permit  entire  section  to  be  rolled  at  low 
temperatures. 

127 


Rail  Sections. 

3.  As  fineness  of  grain  is  governed  by  the  work 
done  as  the  heat  decreases,  the  section  should 
be  designed  to  obtain  the  maximum  amount  of 
work 

(a)  On  the  entire  section, 

(b)  Especially  on  the  head,  in  order  to  get 
the  best  wearing  qualities. 

4.  Sections  should  be  so  proportioned  as  to  have 

(a)  Greatest  amount  of  stiifness  and  strength, 

(b)  Sufficient  shearing  strength  in  the  head, 

(c)  As  great  a  depth  of  joint  bar  as  possible, 

(d)  Sufficient  shoulder  for  bearing  surface  on 
joint  bar, 

(e)  Sides  of  head  vertical  or  nearly  so, 

(f)  Neutral  axis  located  close  to  center  line 
of  bolt  holes, 

(g)  Ratio  of  section  modulus  to  area  of  sec- 
tion as  high  as  possible. 

5.  Following  limits  as  to  dimensions  are  considered 
advisable : 

(a)  Width    of   base   to    be    MJ    in.    less    than 
height, 

(b)  Fishing  angles  to  be  between  13  and  15 
degrees, 

(c)  Radii  of  under  corner  of  head  and  top 
and  bottom  corners  of  base  to  be  as  small 
as  practicable  with  the  lower  rolling  tem- 
peratures, 

(d)  Radii  of  fillets  connecting  web  with  head 
and  base  to  be  as  large  as  possible  for 
reinforcement  purposes,  but  not  conflict 
with  4-  (d), 

(e)  Radii  of  top  corners  of  head  should  not 
be  less  than   %   inch  so  long  as  present 
M.  C.  B.  wheel  contour  holds. 


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1  «9  A  -S  c-2  6  A 


Robert  W.  Hunt  Jas.  C.  Hallsted 

John  J.  Cone  D.  W.  McNaugher 


HUNT 
INSPECTION 

Will  help  you  operate  your  railroad  with 
greater  safety  and  at  less  expense. 

For  your  maintenance  of  way  department 

we  have  specialists  in  rails,  structural 

material,    timber    and    timber 

preservation. 

For  your  mechanical  department  we  have 

specialists  in  locomotives,  boilers, 

cars  and  motors. 

Experienced  inspectors  permanently  at  steel 
mills  and  manufacturing  plants. 


Robert  W.  Hunt  &  Co. 

ENGINEERS 

General  Offices: 

22OO  Insurance   Exchange 

CHICAGO 

NEW  YORK         PITTSBURGH         ST.  LOUIS         SAN  FRANCISCO 

146 


INDEX 

Page 

Abrasion    79 

Acid   open  hearth   process 31 

Additions 21,  34 

American  Mills: 

Kail-rolling  practice   42 

Stamping  practice    120 

Bar  mill    41 

Base  of  rail,  width  tolerances   102,  114 

Base   failures    81 

Basic  open  hearth  process   • 31 

Bessemer  process    26 

Billet    41 

Blank  Forms: 

for  brands   and  stamps    124 

for  rail  sections,  drilling,  etc 144 

Blast  furnace   15 

Bled   ingot 33,  101 

Blow  of  Bessemer  steel 31 

Blowholes     59 

Bloom     s 41 

Blooming  mill 41 

Branding  and  stamping 103  117 

Broken  rails    • 83 

Broken   wheels    68,  84 

Burden,  blast  furnace    16 

Burnt  rails    •-....•  69 

Hambering     49,  04 

Carbon  steel   19 

Carbon  and  its  effect  on   steel    22 

Careless  handling  of  rails   84 

Causes  of  Rail  Failures: 

General    53 

Defects  in  manufacture    54 

Defects   in  equipment    66 

Defects   in  operation    68 

Defects   in  track    70 

Cold  weather    •  53 

Careless   handling    84 

Causes  of  crushed  head  failures   77 

Causes  of   split  head   failures 78 

Causes  of  flow  of  metal    78 

Causes  of  web  failures   80 

Causes  of  piped  rails    •  •  • .  • 81 

Causes  of  base  failures 81 

Causes  of  broken  rails 84 

Causes  of  transverse  fissures    88 

Charge,  for  blast  furnace   16 

Charge,  for  open  hearth  furnace   29 

Charging   machine    30 

Chemical   analysis    98,    105,  111 

147 


P.&M. 

Anti-  Creeper 

(boltles.) 
Easy  to  apply. 
Will  not  slip  on  rail. 
Will  not  corrode. 
Tightens  itself  automatically. 

THE  WEAKEST  POINT  IN  ANY  RAILROAD 
TRACK  IS  THE  JOINT 

Over  75%  of  all  rail  renewals  are  required  on  account,  prima- 
rily, of  ends  of  rails  battering,  bending,    or  breaking;  while 
remainder  oi  rail  is  still  in  serviceable  condition. 

A  large  part  of  this  trouble  is  due  to  the 
practice  of  spiking  joint  bars  to  the  ties,  in 
order  to  reduce  rail-creeping;  this  imposes  an 
additional  duty  on  what  is  already  the  weakest 
part  of  the  track,  and  in  additio.i  causes  shift- 
ing and  skewing  of  joint  ties,  with  consequent 
increased  difficulty  of  maintaining  line  and 
surface. 

Except  under  special  conditions,  the  joint  bars  should 
only  be  called  upon  to  support  the  rail  ends;  and  rail- 
creeping  should  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  efficient  anti-creepers. 

The  economies  effected  by  the  judicious  use  of  anti- 
creepers  actually  pays  for  their   cost   in   the  first    25  % 
of  their  life. 
Use  P.  &  M.  Anti-Creepers  and  prolong  the  life  of  your  rail. 

TH 


SAN  FRANCISCO  Railway  Exchange  ST.  PAUL 

DENVER  CHICAGO  MONTREAL,  P.  Q 

30  Church  Street,  NEW  YORK 


148 


Index — Continued 

Page 

Chemical  contents  of  rail   97,  105 

Chilled  heat    •  32 

Cogging,   of  rolls    41 

Cold  short   25 

Cold  straightening,  gagging 50,  64,  102 

Cold   weather,    effect   on    rails 53,   67,   82,  84 

Comparison  of  Bess,  and  O.  H.  processes 20 

Concentrating,   of   ores    • 13 

Converter    • 27 

Cooling  beds,  hot  beds   • 50,  64 

Counterbalance,  of  locomotives    67 

Crushed  head  failures    76 

Defects   in   equipment    66 

Defects   in  manufacture    54 

Defects  in  operation    68 

Defects   in  track   70 

Discard    60,  101 

Draft,  or  reduction,  in  rolling • 62,  63 

Drilling    rails    103,  114 

Drivers,   slipping  of   69 

Drop    tests     98 

Duplex   process    19 

Ends   of   rails    103,  114 

Equipment    66 

Excessive  speed    • 68 

Failures,  classification  of 75 

Failures,  cause  of: 

General    53 

Defects   in  manufacture 54 

Defects   in  equipment 66 

Defects   in   operation 68 

Defects  in  track   70 

Failures,  kinds  of: 

General    75 

Crushed   head    76 

Split  head    77 

Flow  of  metal  • 78 

Abrasion    79 

Web  failures    80 

Piped  rails    80 

Base  failures    81 

Broken  rails    83 

Transverse  fissures    85 

Failures  at  rail  joint 75,  77 

Failures  on  curves   76 

Ferro-manganese    23 

Ferro-silicon     24 

Fishing  height,   tolerances    102,  114 

Fissures,  transverse   85 

Flat-headed  rails    115 

Flat  wheels    68 

Flow   of  metal    78 

Flowed  in  spots   78 

Flux    15 

Full-headed   rails    115 

Furnace,   blast    15 

Furnace,  open  hearth   28 

Gagging,  cold  straightening   50,   64,  102 

149 


Frictionless  Rail 

diminishes  flange  friction .  and  flange 
abrasion  of  the  outside  rail  of  curves. 
Consequently  smoother  riding  is  the 
result.  You  can  notice  it  on  a  Friction- 
less  Curve,  and  see  the  reason  when 
you  look  out  and  find  the  narrow  head 
on  the  inside  rail  of  the  curve. 

The  FRICTIONLESS  RAIL 

683  Atlantic  Avenue,  Boston 


150 


Index — Continued 

Pajre 

Gangue,   of  ores    13 

Gary,   rolling-mill  at 44 

Gas,  furnace   17 

Gases   in  steel    • 26 

Heat,  of  open  hearth  steel   31 

Heat   number    118 

Height  of  rail,  tolerances   102,  114 

Hematite,   iron  ore    13 

Hot  beds,  or  cooling  beds 50,  64 

Impurities  in  steel    • 25 

Improvements  in  steel  making 21,  57,  58 

Improvements   in  rail  rolling    38 

Improvements   in   locomotives 66 

Ingots   and   ingot   molds    33 

Interior  defect,  denned   100 

Iron  ores    13 

Iron  and  steel,  difference    13 

Joint,   failures   at 75,  77 

Kinds  of  Rail  Failures: 

Crushed  head    76 

Split  head    77 

Plow  of  metal    78 

Abrasion    79 

Web    failures    80 

Piped  rails    80 

Base  failures    81 

Broken  rails    83 

Transverse   fissures    .  .  85 

Ladle    31 

Laps,   rolling-mill    62 

Length   of   rails 101,  113 

Letters  on  rails    61,  104 

Loading  rails    50,  85 

Locomotive  counterbalance • 67 

Manganese  and  its  effect  on   steel    24 

Manufacture  of  iron    13 

Manufacture  of  steel 19 

Means  for  reducing  pipe 57 

Means  for  reducing  segregation 58 

Melt  of  steel    31 

Merchant   or  bar   mill    4i 

ilill,  rolling,  general  form  of 

Mill,   rolling,   at   Gary    44 

Mill,  rolling,  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie 47 

Mill,  bloom,  billet  or  slab   41 

Mill,  rating  of   ' 41 

Mixer     • 17 

Nick-and-break  test,    ordinary    99 

Nick-and-break  test,  every  ingot   109 

Nitrogen    26 

Number   1   rails    101 

Number  2   rails .  101,  103 

Open  hearth   process    28 

^pen  hearth  furnace > 

Oxygen 26 

Pass,   in  rolling-mill    3* 

Permanent   set    99  10P 


AYER  &  LORD 
TIE  COMPANY 

CHICAGO 

THE  CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL 
RESOURCES  and  THE  CONSERVATION 
OF  RAILROAD  RESOURCES  now  call  for 
the  use  of  the  inferior  classes  of  timber  for  cross- 
ties,  and  for  their  treatment  by  preservatives 
which  will  so  extend  their  life  that  the  use  of  such 
wood  will  be  economical. 

The  successful  treatment  of  cross  ties  requires 
the  use  of  suitable  preservatives  and  careful 
work  in  seasoning  and  treating.  In  no  other 
way  can  good  results  be  obtained. 

The  longer  the  life  of  the  tie  the  longer  will 
be  the  periods  between  the  renewals  in  track, 
and  the  less  frequent  the  disturbance  of 
ballast,  line  and  surface. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  the  roadbed,  and  the 
prevention  of  deformity  in  the  rail,  depend  directly 
on  the  size  and  spacing  of  the  ties,  the  latter 
being  the  more  important  factor. 

In  many  cases  it  will  be  found  more  economical 
to  add  two  or  three  treated  ties  per  rail  length 
than  to  add  ten  pounds  per  yard  to  the  weight 
of  the  rail;  provided  the  ties  have  been  carefully 
treated  and  the  best  preservative  materials  used. 


152 


Index — Continued 

Page 

Phosphorus   and  its  effect  on   steel 25 

Pig  iron 14 

Pipe  in  ingots    54 

Pipe  in  rails    56,  8(i 

Pipe,   prevention  of    57 

Prevention   of   blowholes    59 

Ragging,   of  rolls    41 

Rail  Sections: 

Design    of     127 

A.    R.    B.    A.— 1915    130 

A.   R.  A. — A. — 1908    132 

A.   R.   A— B.— 1908    134 

A.    S.    C.    E. — 1893 136 

Special    sections    140 

Blank  form  for  recording   144 

Rail  steel,  manufacture  of   26,  28 

Rail  too  light  for  service 66 

Recarburization     33 

Red  short   24,   26,  62 

Reduction,  or  draft,   in  rolling   62,  63 

Regenerators 29 

Reheating  furnaces    • 33,   38,  47 

Roaring    rails    78 

Rocky  bottoms    114 

Rolling-mill,  general  type  of 39 

Rolling-mill,   American   practice    42 

Rolling-mill,  at  Gary,  Ind 44 

Rolling-mill  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Ont 45 

Rolling-mill  seams  and  laps   62 

Rolls,  stand  of,  train  of 39 

Sawing  the  rails 48 

Seams,    rolling-mill    62 

Segregation     57 

Shape  or  slab  mill   41 

Shrinkage  allowance 102 

Silicon  and  its  effect  on  steel    24 

Sinking  head   21,  58 

Slab     41 

Slag    25 

Slag   inclusions    60 

Slipping  and  sliding  wheels    69 

Soaking  pits    33 

Specifications  of  A.  R.  E.  A. 

for  Open  Hearth  steel  rail 97 

for  Bessemer  steel  rail   105 

Specifications  for  nick-and-break  test  of  every  ingot  109 

Specifications  for  chemical  analysis  of  finished  rail.  Ill 

Special  steels    23 

Speed,    excessive    68 

Spiegel,    spiegeliesen    23 

Split  head  failures    77 

Stamping  and  branding   104,  .  117 

Stamping  practice,  American  mills 120 

Stand  of  rolls    39 

Steel,   constituents   of 22 

Steel,   manufacture   of    19,  45 

Steel,   open   hearth 28 

Steel,    Bessemer 26 

153 


Sellers    Anchor   Bottom 


Wrought  Iron  Tie  Plates 

RESIST  CORROSION    and    DO   NOT    BREAK 

MALLEABLE   IRON    TIE   PLATES 
RESIST  CORROSION  BUT  BREAK 

STEEL   TIE   PLATES    DO    NOT    RESIST    CORROSION 
AND  BREAK  UNLESS  ROLLED  END  OVER  END 

The  bottom  corrugations  of  the  Sellers  Tie  Plate  imbed  themselves 
firmly  in  the  tie,  without  injuring  the  wood  fibre;  so  that  the  plate  prac- 
tically becomes  a  part  of  the  tie.  This  affords  the  best  possible  protection 
to  the  tie,  and  assists  very  materially  in  maintaining  guage. 

Furthermore,  the  bottom  corrugations  give  a  plate  with  additional 
strength  equivalent  to  the  depth  of  the  corrugations,  and  with  a  saving 
of  all  metal  eliminated  between  the  corrugations. 

WRITE  FOR  BOOKLET 

SELLERS  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

McCormick    Building,    CHICAGO 


Index — Continued 

Page 

Steel,  useful  elements  in    22 

Steel,    impurities   in    25 

Stripper    33 

Stock  line,   in  blast  furnace    16 

Stoves,   for  heating-  air  blast    17 

Sulphur  and  its  effect  on  steel    25 

Tables  of  rail  sections    130 

Table   of     American  Rolling  Mills    42 

Teeming-  the  ingots 32 

Tests,    drop , 98,  106 

Tests,    nick-and-break    99,  109 

Tests,  chemical   98,  105,  111 

Tests,   ladle    98,  105 

Tires,   worn    69 

Tolerances     102,  113 

Train  of  rolls   39 

Transverse  fissures 85 

Triplex   process    19 

Two-high,   three-high  mills    40 

Unloading  rail    85 

Unstraightened   rail    • 64 

Useful  elements  in  steel    22 

Web    failures    80 

Weight   of   rail   tolerance    102,  115 

Wheels,  broken  and  flat    68 

Wheels,  slipping  and  sliding 69 

Wheels,    worn    tires 69 


155 


e       . 


^SSwssSiwff^- 


r» 

k 


1926 


141932 


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